READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 15-27
Questions 15-27, which are based on Reading Passage
2 below.
Twin Study: Two of a kind
A
THE scientific study of twins goes back to the late 19th century, when Francis Galton, an early
geneticist, realised that they came in two varieties: identical twins born from one egg and non-
identical twins that had come from two. That insight turned out to be key, although it was not
until 1924 that it was used to formulate what is known as the twin rule of pathology, and twin
studies really got going.
B
The twin rule of pathology states that any heritable disease will be more concordant (that is,
more likely to be jointly present or absent) in identical twins than in non-identical twins – and,
in turn, will be more concordant in non-identical twins than in non-siblings. Early work, for
example, showed that the statistical correlation of skin-mole counts between identical twins
was 0.4, while non-identical twins had a correlation of only 0.2. (A score of 1.0 implies a
perfect correlation, while a score of zero implies no correlation.) This result suggests that moles
are heritable, but it also implies that there is an environmental component to the development
of moles, otherwise, the correlation in identical twins would be close to 1.0.
C
Twin research has shown that whether or not someone takes up smoking is determined mainly
by environmental factors, but once he does so, how much he smokes is largely down to his
genes. And while a person’s religion is clearly a cultural attribute, there is a strong genetic
component to religious fundamentalism. Twin studies are also unraveling the heritability of
various aspects of human personality. Traits from neuroticism and anxiety to thrill – and
novelty-seeking all have large genetic components. Parenting matters, but it does not
determine personality in the way that some had thought.
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D
More importantly, perhaps, twin studies are helping the understanding of diseases such as
cancer, asthma, osteoporosis, arthritis and immune disorders. And twins can be used, within
ethical, for medical experiments. A study that administered vitamin C to one twin and a placebo
to the other found that it had no effect on the common cold. The lesson from all of today’s twin
studies is that most human traits are at least partially influenced by genes. However, for the
most part, the age-old dichotomy between nature and nurture is not very useful. Many genetic
programs are open to input from the environment, and genes are frequently switched on or off
by environmental signals. It is also possible that genes themselves influence their environment.
Some humans have an innate preference for participation in sports. Others are drawn to
novelty. Might people also be drawn to certain kinds of friends and types of experience? In this
way, a person’s genes might shape the environment they act in as much as the environment
shapes the actions of the genes.
E
In the past, such research has been controversial. Josef Mengele, a Nazi doctor working at the
Auschwitz extermination camp during the second world war, was fascinated by twins. He
sought them out among arrivals at the camp and preserved them from the gas-chambers for a
series of brutal experiments. After the war, Cyril Burt, a British psychologist who worked on the
heredity of intelligence, tainted twin research with results that appear, in retrospect, to have
been rather too good. Some of his data on identical twins who had been reared apart were
probably faked. In any case, the prevailing ideology in the social sciences after the war was
Marxist and disliked suggestions that differences in human potential might have underlying
genetic causes. Twin studies were thus viewed with suspicion.
F
The ideological pendulum has swung back; however, as the human genome project and its
aftermath have turned genes for abstract concepts to real pieces of DNA. The role of genes in
sensitive areas such as intelligence is acknowledged by all but a few die-hards. The interesting
questions now concern how nature and nurture interact to produce particular bits of biology,
rather than which of the two is more important. Twin studies, which are a good way to ask
these questions, are back in fashion, and many twins are enthusiastic participants in this
research.
G
Research at the Twinsburg festival began in a small way, with a single stand in 1979.
Gradually, news spread and more scientists began turning up. This year, half a dozen groups of
researchers were lodged in a specially pitched research tent. In one corner of this tent, Paul
Breslin, who works at the Monell Institute in Philadelphia, watched over several tables where
twins sat sipping clear liquids from cups and making notes. It was the team’s third year at
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Twinsburg. Dr Breslin and his colleagues want to find out how genes influence human
perception, particularly the senses of smell and taste and those (warmth, cold, pain, tingle, itch
and so on) that result from stimulation of the skin. Perception is an example of something that
is probably influenced by both genes and experience. Even before birth, people are exposed to
flavours such as chocolate, garlic, mint and vanilla that pass intact into the bloodstream, and
thus to the fetus. Though it is not yet clear whether such pre-natal exposure shapes taste-
perception, there is evidence that it shapes preferences for foods encountered later in life.
H
However, there are clearly genetic influences at work, as well – for example in the ability to
taste quinine. Some people experience this as intensely bitter, even when it is present at very
low levels. Others, whose genetic endowment is different, are less bothered by it. Twin studies
make this extremely clear. Within a pair of identical twins, either both, or neither, will find
quinine hard to swallow. Non-identical twins will agree less frequently.
I
On the other side of the tent Dennis Drayna, from the National Institute on Deafness and Other
Communication Disorders, in Maryland, was studying hearing. He wants to know what
happens to sounds after they reach the ear. It is not clear, he says, whether the sound is
processed into sensation mostly in the ear or in the brain. Dr Drayna has already been involved
in a twin study which revealed that the perception of musical pitch is highly heritable. At
Twinsburg, he is playing different words, or parts of words, into the left and right ears of his
twinned volunteers. The composite of the two sounds that an individual reports hearing
depends on how he processes this diverse information and that, Dr Drayna believes, may well
be influenced by genetics.
J
Elsewhere in the marquee, Peter Miraldi, of Kent State University in Ohio, was trying to find out
whether genes affect an individual’s motivation to communicate with others. A number of twin
studies have shown that personality and sociability are heritable, so he thinks this is fertile
ground. And next to Mr Miraldi was a team of dermatologists from Case Western Reserve
University in Cleveland. They are looking at the development of skin disease and male-pattern
baldness. The goal of the latter piece of research is to find the genes responsible for making
men’s hair fall out.
K
The busiest part of the tent, however, was the queue for forensic-science research into
fingerprints. The origins of this study are shrouded in mystery. For many months, the festival’s
organisers have been convinced that the Secret Service – the American government agency
responsible for, among other things, the safety of the president – is behind it. When The
Economist contacted the Secret Service for more information, we were referred to Steve Nash,
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who is chairman of the International Association for Identification (IAI) and is also a detective in
the scientific investigations section of the Marin Country Sheriff’s Office in California. The IAI,
based in Minnesota, is an organisation of forensic scientists from around the world. Among
other things, it publishes the Journal of Forensic Identification.
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