Bratislava, Slovakia academic writing guide
Briefly introduce the main points (sections) of the paper
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Briefly introduce the main points (sections) of the paper
In academic writing, the writer lets the reader know what to expect. Provide a brief overview of your paper’s main points.
Do NOT support or try to prove these points. Do not go into depth. Do NOT just write a one-sentence list of your points. You can't summarize a great idea in one word.
This guide has covered the thesis statement already, but because it’s the most important sentence of your paper, we’ll go over it again. In the thesis, o Answer the research question in a clear, straightforward statement. o Make sure the purpose and point of view of your paper are clear. o Do NOT write a long, wordy, confusing thesis statement (especially do not try to include all of your main points). o Do NOT announce your intentions. Avoid “This paper will prove…” or “I’m going to write about…” Don’t tell the audience what you are going to do; just do it.
Body paragraphs can be written in many ways, depending on your purpose. However, each paragraph should have ONE point which supports the thesis statement. Most body paragraphs will have:
Usually, but not always, the first sentence of the paragraph. If it’s not the first sentence, it should be very clear which sentence is the topic sentence.
It introduces the paragraph's main idea, makes your point about this idea, and relates to the thesis statement.
The topic sentence connects to the previous paragraph. The topic sentence is NOT a fact. It has a point of view.
The topic sentence is NOT something from a source. It is your idea. Every sentence in the paragraph will support this topic sentence.
The sentence(s) after the topic sentence often further describe the main idea of the paragraph.
The topic sentence is supported by supporting points, details, and explanations, often presented in sandwiches (review pp. 23-25 in Research and APA Style Guide about 15
sandwiching). A body paragraph could have one to several sandwiches, depending on how long and in-depth the detail is.
Supporting points are the ideas that support the main point of the paragraph. These can be written in your own words and then supported by details.
Specific details are very important to show the readers that your ideas are valid. o When using facts, examples, studies, experts’ opinions, etc. be as specific as possible. Use the expert’s names and professions. Use names, places, dates and other specific information about examples. Include numbers and dates. For scientific studies, explain a little about how the study was done. Use vivid descriptions to make the details clear to the readers. o Make sure the details are relevant to your point. A common mistake is including misunderstood source information that does not actually support the student’s point.
o Remember that one example does not prove something. Use more than one example or source in a paragraph. o Check with your instructor if you can also include your own personal experience as a detail.
Clear and complete explanations are very important because the readers are expecting you to explain everything to them. The readers do not expect to have to think too hard. So explain why/how the details support the topic sentence, and thus the thesis. o Your explanation should not just repeat the source material, but rather interpret and analyze it. o Your explanation should not simply repeat your thesis or topic sentence, but rather explain how the source material supports those ideas.
Do NOT rely on sources too much. It’s YOUR paragraph, so it should contain your ideas about the topic as well. Look at the example papers in this guide and the Research and APA Style Guide to see how the writers balance source material and their own ideas about it in each body paragraph.
Make sure all your support has a logical order and good connections. Concluding sentence
The last sentence should review the body paragraph, emphasize the point and/or thesis again, or prepare the reader for the next body paragraph.
Do NOT end the paragraph with a source citation. End with your own idea. A final, important guideline about body paragraphs:
It is difficult for readers to stay focused on long blocks of text. ¾ of a page is generally as long as a paragraph should be. If your paragraph is much longer, find a logical way to divide it into two body paragraphs.
The conclusion may be the shortest paragraph, but it’s also the most important because this is what the reader will remember. A conclusion usually does these things:
Use an advanced style. In conclusion, to summarize, at the end are rather boring and 16
typical although they will work. Try to be more sophisticated by repeating or connecting ideas in another way. Summarize the findings of your paper
Remind the readers of the paper’s main ideas and wrap up your argument. o Restate the thesis in different words/phrases. o Briefly summarize the main points of your paper. Again, say these in a different way, so readers are not bored by repetition of the same sentences and phrases. o Use your own thoughts, not your sources’. The place for source support was in the body paragraphs, not the conclusion. o Do NOT write any new information, points, or support in the conclusion.
Explain why your paper is important – What does it mean? What does it solve? What does it say about your topic? What does it show about the future of your topic? What should the readers take away from your paper?
Also known as the “Wow statement,” the last sentence(s) of your paper should make your readers say, “Wow! I’m glad I read this paper.” There are several ways to do this:
o End with the significance of your paper, as described above. o Relate your conclusion to the hook sentence(s) from your introduction. This can be a very effective way of wrapping up your paper. o End with an idea for the reader to think about – a prediction or recommendation perhaps.
Do NOT ask a question that leaves the reader uncertain. The purpose of academic writing is not to confuse the reader, but to enlighten the reader.
Do NOT be too general. Stay focused on your specific topic. DO NOT be too shocking, unbelievable, sweet, or obvious.
Because academic papers should have a clear organizational structure, throughout your paper, you need to show the readers how your ideas are connected between paragraphs and between sentences. Often this happens naturally as you write; however, sometimes you will need to make the connection clearer to the reader. Here are 3 ways to do this:
Use a pronoun to refer to a noun from the previous sentence. Teachers should not put grades on essays. This would eliminate students' tears. Angela Rizzi argues that grades do not motivate students. She thinks teachers should only write comments, but not grades. Repeated words/ideas
Use the same word or a synonym in the next sentence. The policy on changing classes is too strict. According to the policy, a student must get the signatures of 7 different people before moving to another class. Transition words 17
These words clearly state the relationship between two sentences. Here are some transitions; if you are not sure what a word means, look it up in a dictionary. o to start – first, first of all, to begin with o to add another idea – in addition, furthermore, also, moreover, what's more o to add a more important idea – more importantly, what's worse, what's more o to add your last idea – finally, most of all, most importantly o to contrast with the previous idea – however, nevertheless, on the other hand o to show the result of the previous idea – therefore, thus, consequently, as a result o to emphasize an idea – in fact, in particular o to give an example of the previous idea – for instance, for example, to illustrate o to show a time relationship between ideas – first, second, then, next, finally
While they are very helpful, there are two big problems with using these words: o Students over-use them. Too many transition words at the beginning of sentences can be annoying. Do NOT use a lot of transition words. One or two in a paragraph is enough. o Students often use them incorrectly. Please see the box below about proper use of these words.
Your first draft is complete, but your paper is far from finished. The next step is to revise your paper – strengthen the content. Start this at least a week before your paper is due. In fact, you don’t need to wait until you have a complete first draft to start revising. You can revise individual paragraphs as you finish them as well.
Before you can revise, you need to know what to fix. How can you find that out?
papers to read and comment on them in class or online. If not, ask a friend to read it. You can also ask your instructor to look at parts of your paper (most instructors are happy to help if you have started your paper early. They may not be willing if you ask for advice at the last-minute). Listen to the advice of your reviewers, but remember that in the end, your paper is your responsibility.
beginning of a complete sentence – after a period or semi-colon. The law does not stop teenagers from drinking therefore it is ineffective. WRONG The law does not stop teenagers from drinking, therefore it is ineffective. WRONG The law does not stop teenagers from drinking; therefore, it is ineffective. RIGHT!
The law does not stop teenagers from drinking. Therefore, it is ineffective. RIGHT!
WRONG
Many organizations use English. For example, the UN, the EU, and NATO. WRONG Many organizations use English. For example, it is one of the official
RIGHT
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Refer to the paper requirements or grading criteria or look at the checklist in this guide. Read your paper and look at the requirements or checklist at the same time. Check off what you have, and mark what you need to fix.
sentence. This will show you whether your ideas are clearly organized and whether they focus on answering the research question (the thesis).
yourself, “Does this support the thesis statement?” If it doesn’t, cross it out or change it. [Or consider changing your thesis.]
its topic sentence again. Did the paragraph support that sentence enough? Were there enough specific details – facts, examples, descriptions, expert opinions?
the first time (this is often hard to do, which is why it’s good to have another person read your paper). As you read, write down any comments or questions your audience might have. Make sure that the tone fits the audience – will the audience be offended or attracted by your writing?
Once you know what to fix, you must do it. Be daring. You will not have a good paper if you are afraid to change things. It may be easier to completely re-type your paper while just looking at your first draft. How should you change your paper?
If there is time (make time!), revise your second draft. And keep revising. Good writers actually tend to revise more rather than less as they gain more writing experience.
When you are happy with your paper's content, it's time to edit. Try to do this in the week before your paper is due.
Editing will make your writing more precise and easier to understand (not necessarily shorter, but clearer). When editing, you examine every sentence and ask yourself if has a purpose and if it’s complete, clear, and concise in English. A grammar resource and an English-English dictionary are both helpful editing tools.
Experiment with the following strategies until you find what works best for you. Read your paper out loud slowly (or ask someone to read it to you). You will hear mistakes, wordiness, repetition, and lack of clarity, which you can correct. If you don't know how to correct something, start looking through those grammar books.
They will find some things, but not everything. This should not be your only strategy.
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Editing strategies for specific problems
o Read the beginning and end of every paragraph to make sure they flow together. o Go through the paper sentence by sentence and find connections between them. o If the ideas don't connect, add a transition, pronoun, repeated word, synonym, or another sentence.
o Find all the very long sentences (25 words or more). Can they be rewritten more clearly and concisely? o Read each sentence. After each one, ask, “Is it necessary to the paragraph? Does it add something new? Could it be eliminated completely or partly? Could it be combined?” o Read each sentence word by word. Is every word necessary? Could some be eliminated or re-written in a shorter, clearer way? Could passive verbs be rewritten as active ones?
o Read each sentence and ask, “What is the purpose of this sentence?” Does it introduce a new idea? Does it support or explain the previous idea? OR does it just repeat it? o Read the first 5 words of each sentence to find sentences starting in the same way (such as with a transition word). Change some so your sentences have variety. o Look at the length of every sentence. There should be a variety of short and long sentences. Make sentences shorter by dividing them or longer by combining. o Find words which are repeated a lot. Use a thesaurus to find other words to use.
o Go through the essay sentence by sentence. Label the subject(s) and the verb(s) in every sentence. Make sure each sentence has a subject and verb. Make sure there are not too many subject-verb combinations in each sentence and that word order is Subject+Verb+Object. Fix fragments, run-ons, and word order.
o Find all the long words. Could some be replaced with shorter, clearer words?
o Read your paper without using a lot of effort – you're just reading because you are interested in the topic. If you have to read something twice, it's not clear. o Read your paper and translate it into your native language in your head. If it's really easy to translate, then maybe the writing is not following English structure and style. o Say your ideas out loud in English. Write exactly what you said. You probably speak more clearly than you write.
When you think your paper is ready to turn it, it's time to proofread (check for mistakes). If you don't proofread, your paper may be full of careless errors, which shows the audience that you were too lazy, rushed, or uncaring to fix your paper. To proofread:
Do not look at your paper for 24 hours (this requires time management skills!) Print your paper – you'll see mistakes that you might not see on a computer screen. 20
Start with the last sentence of your paper and read your paper sentence by sentence, going backwards. (This will help you focus on grammar, not content).
Cover all the other lines with another piece of paper. Point your pen at each word.
Think about the grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, meaning... of every word.
If you are unsure about anything, use a dictionary or grammar book. If you are still unsure, mark the line and ask someone for help.
Fix any mistakes that you found. Print your paper and proofread it again!
It is a long, slow, unpleasant experience at first. However, the more you proofread, the easier it gets, the better your English gets, and the higher your grades get too.
Clear Objective, Thesis, and Focus ____ Thesis is clear
____ Thesis has no errors ____ Thesis has point of view
____ Purpose of paper is clear ____ Thesis answers research question ____ Every paragraph relates to thesis ____ Thesis is surprising
____ Every paragraph supports thesis
____ Clear introduction, body, conclusion ____ Clear, logical order of paragraphs ____ Connections between paragraphs ____ All sentences connect to each other
____ Hook sentence catches attention ____ Connects to last body paragraph ____ No too general statements
____ Summarizes thesis and main points ____ Enough background info about topic ____ No new or superfluous information
____ Section ideas explained in introduction ____ Shows importance of topic ____ Thesis statement is easy to find ____ Effective closing statement (“wow”)
____ Each paragraph has only one point ____ Support is explained/analyzed ____ Logical, convincing points support thesis ____ Balanced source info and own ideas ____ Topic sentences in every paragraph ____ Each paragraph explains “why/how” ____ Topic sentences relate to thesis ____ Specific explanations ____ Topic sentences have point of view ____ No repetition of ideas ____ Sufficient supp. points in each para. ____ No irrelevant ideas or information ____ Supporting points are in logical order ____ Appropriate concluding sentences ____ Source information is introduced ____ Each para. proves its topic sentence ____ Use of specific details as support ____ Alternative/opposing views included, ____ Source information is integrated
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