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Imhotep, the first figure of a physician to stand clearly from the
mists of antiquity.
Sir William Osler
1
Introduction
Early in the Egyptian Old Kingdom, dated by 19
th
century
historians as commencing in c. 2686 BCE1 lived perhaps one
of the world’s most astonishing ancients, Imhotep. He was
perhaps the first physician, engineer and architect in history
known by name. Imhotep has been favourably compared
with Leonardo da Vinci
2
. Although Jamieson B Hurry lists
thirty variants in the English spelling of his name
3
, the name
Imhotep is the most common variant and will be used in this
biography.
The pre-eminent American Egyptologist, James Henry Breasted,
wrote of Imhotep,
“In priestly wisdom, in magic, in the formulation of wise
proverbs, in medicine and architecture, this remarkable
figure of the Pharaoh Zoser’s (sic) reign left so notable a
reputation that his name was never forgotten, and 2,500
years after his death he had become a God of Medicine,
in whom the Greeks, who called him Imouthes, recognised
their own Asclepius”
4
.
One of the most famous Egyptian rulers, Djoser or Zoser lived
from 2667 to 2648 BCE
6
.He is credited with by initiating the
construction of the first successfully completed largest stone
building in the world, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara (Sakkarah).
However it was Imhotep the courtier who is now better known. For
unlike Djoser, Imhotep became the object of a popular cult
8
.
Who was Imhotep?
In 1928, a statue-base was found during clearance work at
the Step Pyramid bearing Imhotep’s name, and translates in
ancient Egyptian to ‘the one that comes in peace’
9
. This identity
would seem appropriate today for a man of healing bringing
solace to the anxious patient. How he rose as a commoner
to the highest post open to an Egyptian official is unknown.
He may have been descended from a distinguished architect
named Konofer and from a mother named Khreduonkh and he
may have married Ronfrenofert. He appears to have received a
liberal education and became a truly gifted polymath, a sort
of Aristotelian genius
10
.
Why was he so enlightened?
Pharaoh Djoser appointed Imhotep as the high priest of the
sun god Re at Heliopolis the religious capital of Egypt
11
. He
also became the chief lector (reader priest) or
kheri-heb – a
position of high esteem as he was considered by the populace
as the mediator between the king and the unseen powers of
the universe. The duty of the lector priest was to recite from
holy books which contained religious texts possessed with
magical powers. In this role as a magician he was supposed to
influence the final destinies of the dead
12
. Imhotep was also one
of Egypt’s great sages, a notable scribe and his literary skills led
him to be recognised as the ‘patron of scribes’.
It was, however, through his talents as a physician and as
the chief architect that he achieved long-lasting historical
significance. He was the court physician to King Djoser in
addition to his appointment as vizier. The Edwin Smith
Papyrus, c 16
th
century BCE, (a treatise on Egyptian medicine
and surgery written in hieratic script) claims Imhotep to be the
founder of Egyptian medicine. According to one examination
of the Edwin Smith papyrus, it covers the treatment of over
200 diseases, including 15 diseases of the abdomen, 11 of the
bladder, 10 of the rectum, 29 of the eyes and 18 of the skin,
hair, nails and tongue. More recent analysis of the papyrus
suggests that it was written and edited by at least three different
authors and some consider it may be a copy of texts written a
thousand years previously.
13
,
The Art of Medicine evolved early in Egyptian history and
developed to an unparalleled level of sophistication. Several
‘medical’ papyri have provided Egyptologists with detailed
information as to the spectrum of Egyptian medicine. The
History
Imhotep and the Origins of Ancient
Egyptian Military Medicine
AVM Bruce Short
AM RFD FRACP (rtd)
Bruce Short, a retired physician,
sometime Surgeon General ADF and
editor of ADF Health, is currently
undertaking studies for a Master of
Arts (History).
ADF Health | Vol 10 N
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49
two oldest ‘medical’ papyri are the Edwin Smith Papyrus
(c 1600 BCE) and the Ebers Papyrus (c 1550 BCE). The
latter, of over 20 meters in length, consists of a list of 876
prescriptions and remedies for such ailments as wounds,
stomach complaints, cardiac diseases, gynaecological problems
and skin irritations
14
. The ‘London Medical Papyrus’ best
describes the Egyptian approach to holistic healing. The
tripartite strategy consists of magic spells, rituals and practical
prescriptions. Pharmacological prescriptions by themselves
were uncommon because many illnesses were regarded as the
result of a malign spirit or god who had entered the body.
15
The
most common cure for maladies was probably the
amulet, or
the magic spell; magic was the ‘mother’ of medicine and never
ceased to influence its ‘offspring’. The Egyptian physician-
priest-magician was skilled in suitable incantations, performed
necromancy (divination through magical communication
with the dead) and was skilful in making amulets adapted to
the occasion.
16
Whether a physician chose rational methods
of treatment or white magic (‘theurgical’ treatment) such as
invoking beneficent spirits was a matter of personal preference.
Many faith-cures took place at famous shrines and temples
17
.
The practice of alchemy arose in Egypt, whose ancient
name was khami. Egyptians studied metals including the
‘transmutation’ of copper and tin into the alloy bronze. The
body of knowledge, which included these chemical reactions
between metallic compounds, came to be known as al chemi, the
art of Egypt. From the study of alchemy came the therapeutic
use of copper salts, especially for ophthalmic use.
Botanical studies of medicinal plants such as opium poppy,
castor oil plants, squills (scillae) and lupins etc, enabled an
extensive pharmacopoeia to be developed. Fuller’s earth,
a form of clay, was also used topically on skin conditions.
Splanchnology, which involved the scrutiny of animal entrails,
especially the liver, was performed by priests in the temples. It
was used as a means of divining the underlying meaning of events
and foretelling the future. It involved the sacrifice of animals
and their subsequent partial dissection and inspection.
19
Hygiene was widely practiced with sanitation existing in many
Egyptian towns and dwellings. Priests performed personal
cleanliness by frequent ablutions (cold water washings twice
a day and twice a night) and by the purity of their clothing
20
.
Nonetheless, Egyptian medicine whilst quite advanced was
never a science.
The Origins of Egyptian Military Medicine
The empirical physician and surgeon were a lower caste of
doctors called swnw (pronounced “soo-noo”) and were state
employees appointed to building sites, at burial grounds or
with the army. Egyptian sources indicate the development
of military medicine in the Egyptian army with frequent
descriptions of the treatment of battle wounds. They seem to
have been the first to perfect the use of the splint for fractured
bones, often stiffened by impregnated linen wrappings. These
were introduced as early as 2600 BCE. A century later they
developed techniques for treating depressed skull fractures.
Egyptian physicians developed protocols for the treatment of
wounds. This included the washing and debridement of the
wound and removal of foreign bodies. Wound closure was
introduced using string sutures or adhesive bandages consisting
of linen cloth held together with resin from the gum of the
acacia tree. Haemostasis was achieved using hot knife cautery.
Wounds were then protected by wound dressings impregnated
with a mild bacteriostatic agent, wild honey
18
. Honey was used
in up to one third of all Egyptian treatments.
Imhotep the Engineer-Architect
Whilst his healing and literary talents were well known,
Imhotep also had great engineering and architectural skills.
He put these to good use when he designed the first stone
pyramid complex .Prior to Imhotep’s time, from c. 3,100 to
2686 BCE, Egyptian royal funerary monuments had taken the
form of a mud-brick flat-topped buildings known as a mastaba.
Imhotep’s complex consisted of a true pyramid with mortuary
and attendant valley temples. The word pyramid is derived
from the Greek word pyramis, meaning ‘wheat-cake’: they
presumably resembled them in shape. The ancient Egyptian
term for these burial monuments was mer
21
. At Saqqara
(Sakkarah), the principal necropolis of ancient Memphis,
Imhotep built a series of five progressively smaller mastaba on
top of the original large limestone chamber to a height of 60
meters. The six-stepped pyramid, with its contained halls and
corridors lined with blue and green glazed tiles bearing the
king’s name and titles, became the tomb of his King Djoser
22
. It
was at the time the largest stone structure in the known world.
The subsequent use of steps in pyramids, which continued to
be constructed until the Intermediate Period of 1650-1550
BCE, was retained, and simply improved by the application of
a smooth outer casing
23
.
The
Apotheosis of Imhotep,
the God of Healing
Imhotep lived to an old age probably dying during the reign of
King Huni, c 2637 to 2613 BCE, the last of the Third Dynasty
rulers. The tomb of Imhotep has still not been discovered,
although some have argued that it may be the large uninscribed
mastaba 3518 at Saqqara
24
. Two thousand years later, Imhotep
was deified and in the Turin Canon he became known as the
son of Ptah, the creator-god of Memphis. As a god of wisdom,
writing and medicine he became linked with the cults of the
gods Thoth and Ptah. The Greeks identified him with their
god of medicine, Asceplius (Latin: Aesculapius). Even before
then the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, written in Greek in the second
century AD, suggests that Imhotep was ranked as a demigod
during the time of the New Kingdom, c 1580 BCE
25
Admission of
non-royal individuals to the Egyptian pantheon was exceptional
and only two commoner-high officials are known to have earnt
cult status. Imhotep together with Amenhotep, the son of Hapu
and another great architect responsible to King Amenhotep III,
c 1390 to 1352 BC, also regarded as a god of healing, ultimately
received their apotheoses
26
. The worship of Imhotep lasted
perhaps a thousand years.
Relics of Imhotep
Numerous statues and statuettes of Imhotep have survived
some showing him as an ordinary man dressed in plain attire.
Others show him as a sage seated on a chair with a roll of
papyrus on his knees
27
, as a demigod
28
and with a god-like
beard standing and holding the ankh, an hieroglyphic sign
denoting ‘life’ depicted as a cross surmounted by a loop, and
a sceptre
29
.
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Whilst later Western medical writers conferred the title, ‘Father
of Medicine’, on Hippocrates, the Greek physician of the island
of Cos (c 460 to 366 BCE), Imhotep preceded him. Arguably
such an appellation should be reserved for the person, about
whom the ancient Egyptian texts describe as, ‘Imhotep the
great, son of Ptah, the great god’.
References
Osler W.The Evolution of Modern Medicine, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger
1.
Publishing, 2004:p.12.
Ray J. Reflections of Osiris: Lives from Ancient Egypt, Oxford: Oxford
2.
University Press, 2002: p. 17.
Hurry JB. Imhotep, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1926: p.96-97.
3.
Breasted JH. A History of the Ancient Egyptians, New York: Scribner,
4.
1909: p 104.
Shaw I, Nicholson P. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt
5.
(London, British Museum Press, 1995: p 296-297.
Shaw I, editor, ‘The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt’,
6.
(Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 2000: p 480.
Shaw I, Nicholson P. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
7.
op cit: p 169.
Grimal N. A History of Ancient Egypt, English translation, Shaw I,
8.
Oxford, Blackwell, 1992: p 65.
Ray J. Reflections of Osiris: Lives from Ancient Egypt, op cit: p15.
9.
Hurry JB, Imhotep, op cit. p 4.
10.
Moscati S. The Face of the Ancient Orient, London, Valentine,
11.
Mitchell & Co, 1960: p 103.
Hurry JB. Imhotep, op cit: p 13-15.
12.
Peltier LF. Fractures: A History and Iconography of their Treatment,
13.
San Francisco Norman Publishing, 1990: p 16.
Shaw I, Nicholson P. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
14.
op cit: p 176.
Hurry JB. Imhotep, op cit. p 82.
15.
Ibid, p 82.
16.
Ibid, p 85.
17.
Gabriel RA and Metz KS. A History of Military Medicine, Volume I,
18.
New York, Greenwood Press, 1992. p 71–80.
Camac CNB, Imhotep to Harvey, Boston, Milford House, 1931: p
19.
26-28.
Ray J. Reflections of Osiris, op cit: p 18.
20.
Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson, ‘British Museum Dictionary of Ancient
21.
Egypt’, op cit. page 231.
Jamieson B Hurry, ‘Imhotep’, op cit. page10.
22.
Callender G, ‘The Eye of Horus: A History of Ancient Egypt’,
23.
(Melbourne, Longman, 1993), pages 106 – 107.
Shaw I, Nicholson P. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
24.
op cit p 135.
Jamieson B Hurry, ‘Imhotep’, op cit. page 29.
25.
Callender G, ‘The Eye of Horus’, op cit. p 208.
26.
Shaw I, Nicholson P. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
27.
op cit p 135.
Hurry JB, ‘Imhotep’, op cit. page 30.
28.
Ibid, frontispiece.
29.
Source: historiadelamedicina.org
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