Middle English Literature

Lollardy Trials
Religious and secular authorities applied the name “Lollard” to people from
a cross-section of medieval society who believed in one or more heretical ideas,
many of them deriving from the writings of John Wyclif (ca. 1330–84), the
Oxford theologian. His writings, beginning in the 1370s, articulated a set
of ideas that questioned traditional discourse about Church authority, state
prerogatives, the nature of the sacraments, and authority to translate, interpret,
31
The four divisions at the Council of Constance were Italy, France, Germany, and Britain.
Spain also claimed representative status.
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and preach scripture (see “Censorship,” p. 242). Intersecting with a number
of widely held discourses (such as anti-fraternalism; see “Friars,” p. 7),
Wyclif ’s ideas were condemned at the Blackfriars’ Council in London in
1382, but the persecution of followers, many of them women, didn’t begin
in earnest until 1400.
From 1428 to 1431 William Alnwick, bishop of Norwich 1426–36 (then
translated to the bishopric of Lincoln), continued proceedings against Lollards
begun earlier in 1428 in Canterbury and in his own diocese (also see
“Prioresses,” p. 37). The two trials excerpted here are from what at one
time were approximately 120 court records of heresy investigations between
1428 and 1431 kept by officials under Alnwick. They are of two kinds in
the Westminster manuscript: examinations of suspects and (comprising the
majority of the manuscript) abjurations, which were to be read out by the
accused or court officers before sentencing. Margery Baxter’s is of the former
type and Hawise Moon’s the latter. Baxter’s reference to Moon is not
unusual. As the notes to the other names in the selections indicate, Lollards
tended to coalesce around a central figure or in a particular district.
Primary documents and further reading
Aston, M. (1980) “Lollard Women Priests?” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 31:
441–61.
—— (1984) Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Late Medieval Religion.
London: Hambledon Press.
Cross, C. (1978) “ ‘Great Reasoners in Scripture’: The Activities of Women Lollards,
1380–1530.” In D. Baker and R. M. T. Hill (ed.) Medieval Women. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Dahmus, J. H. (1952) The Prosecution of John Wyclif. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Hudson, A. (1988) The Premature Reformation: Wycliffite Texts and Lollard History.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
—— (ed.) (1997) Selections from English Wycliffite Writings. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press.
McFarlane, K. B. (1972) [1952] John Wycliffe and the Beginnings of English Noncon-
formity. London: English Universities Press.
McSheffrey, S. (1995) Gender and Heresy: Women and Men in Lollard Communities,
1420–1530. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Marx, C. W. (trans.) (1992) “The Trial of Walter Brut (1391).” In A. Blamires (ed.)
Woman Defamed and Woman Defended: An Anthology of Medieval Texts. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 250–60.

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Westminster Diocesan Archives MS B.2, fols. 60r–61v, 102r–103v. In N. P. Tanner (ed.)
(1977) Heresy Trials in the Diocese of Norwich, 1428–31. Camden Society, 4th series, 20.
London: Royal Historical Society, 43–9, 140–3 (selections).
Language: Latin and English (Southeast Midland)
Manuscript date: ca. 1430
Depositions against Margery, wife of William Baxter, wright.
On the first day of the month of April in the year of the Lord 1429, Joanna
Clifland, wife of William Clifland, residing in the parish of St. Mary the Less
in Norwich, was summoned to appear in person before the reverend father
in Christ and lord, William, bishop of Norwich by the grace of God, presid-
ing in judgement in the chapel of his palace. On the said lord’s order, she
swore herself, while physically touching God’s holy gospels, that she would
speak according to the truth about each and every individual thing that she
was asked concerning the matter of the faith.
When the oath had thus been made, Joanna Clifland said that on the
Friday before the last feast of the Purification of the Blessed Mary,
1
Margery
Baxter, wife of William Baxter, wright, lately living in Martham in the dio-
cese of Norwich, while sitting and sewing with this witness in her room
next to the fire place in the presence of this witness and Joanne Grimell and
Agnes Bethom, servants to this witness, said and instructed this witness and
her afore-mentioned servants that they should in no way swear, saying in
the mother tongue, “Dame, bewar of the bee, for every bee wil styngge,
and therefor loke that ye swer nother be Godd, ne be our Ladi, ne be non
other seynt and, if ye do the contrarie, the be will styngge your tunge and
veneme your sowle.”
Then this witness says that the said Margery asked her what she did every
day in church. And she replied to her saying that first after her entrance in
the church, kneeling before the cross, she usually said five Paternosters in
honour of the cross and a whole Ave Maria in honour of the blessed Mary,
mother of Christ. And then the said Margery remarked reproachfully to
this witness, “You do ill by kneeling and praying in this way before images
in such churches because God never was in such a church, nor has ever
departed, nor will depart from heaven, nor will he offer or grant you more
favour for such genuflections, adorations, or prayers performed in such
churches than a lighted candle concealed beneath the wooden lath cover
of the baptismal font can provide light to those in church at night time
because there is no greater honour to be shown to images in churches or
images of the crucifix than is to be shown to the gallows from which your
1
February 2.
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brother was hung,” saying in the mother tongue,
2
“Lewed wrightes of
stokkes hewe and fourme suche crosses and ymages, and after that lewed
peyntours glorye thaym with colours, and if you strive to see the true cross
of Christ, I will show you it here in your own home.” And this witness said
she would willingly see the true cross of Christ. And the aforesaid Margery
said, “Look,” and then stretched her arms out wide, saying to this witness,
“this is the true cross of Christ, and this cross you can and should see and
worship every day here in your own home, and so you labour in vain when
you go to church to worship or pray to any dead images or crosses.”
And then this witness said that the aforementioned Margery asked her
what she believed concerning the sacrament of the altar. And this witness,
so she asserts, replied to her, saying that she believed that the sacrament of
the altar after consecration is the true body of Christ in the form of bread.
And then the said Margery said to this witness, “You believe ill because, if
every such sacrament is God and the true body of Christ, there are countless
gods because a thousand and more priests every day make a thousand such
gods and afterwards eat these gods and, having eaten them, discharge them
through their posteriors into repulsively smelling toilets, where you can find
plenty of such gods if you want to look. Therefore, know for certain that
that which you call the sacrament of the altar will never by the grace of God
be my God, for such a sacrament was falsely made and deceitfully ordained
by priests in the church to induce idolatry in simple people because this
sacrament is only material bread.”
Then the said Margery, asked by this witness, said to her, as she says, that
the Thomas of Canterbury that people call Saint Thomas of Canterbury was
a false traitor and is damned there in hell because he wrongfully endowed
churches with possessions, and he encouraged and started many heresies in
the church, which deceive the simple people. Therefore, if God was blessed,
Thomas was and is cursed, and if Thomas was blessed, God was and is
cursed; and those false priests are lying who say that Thomas patiently
endured his death before the altar because, as a false, senseless traitor, he
was slain while he fled through the doorway of the church.
And then this witness said that the aforementioned Margery, asked by
this witness, replied to her that the cursed pope, cardinals, archbishops,
bishops, and in particular the bishop of Norwich and others who start and
support heresies and idolatries, ruling in general over the people, shall have
within a short time the same or worse punishment than had “that cursed
Thomma of Canterbury, for thay falsly and cursedly desseyve the puple with
2
But changing to Latin half way through.

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thair false mawmentryes and lawes” to extort money from simple people in
order to sustain their pride, extravagance, and idleness; and know without
doubt that God’s vengeance will shortly come upon those who most cruelly
killed God’s most holy sons and teachers, that is holy father Abraham,
William White (the most holy and learned teacher of divine law), and John
Waddon, and others who followed Christ’s law . . .
3
Also, this witness said that the aforementioned Margery said to her that
no child or infant born, having Christian parents, should be baptized in
water following common use because such an infant is adequately baptized
in the mother’s womb, and thus that superstition and idolatry that those
false and accursed priests do when they dip infants in fonts in churches, they
do only to extort money from the people to support those priests and their
concubines.
Also, that the same Margery said to this witness then present that the
consent of mutual love alone between a man and a woman suffices for the
sacrament of marriage without any expression of words and without solemn-
ization in churches.
Also, that the same Margery said to this witness that no faithful man or
woman is bound to keep fast in Lent, on the Ember days, Fridays, saints’
days, and other days proclaimed by the church, and that anyone was law-
fully able on those said days and times to eat meat and all other kinds of
food, and that it was better to eat the meat remaining from Thursday’s
leftovers on fast days than to go to market and to incur debt buying fish . . .
Also, that the same Margery said to this witness that William White, who
was condemned as a false heretic, is a great saint in heaven and a most holy
teacher ordained and sent from God, and that every day she prayed to that
holy man William White, and every day of her life she will pray to him
because he is worthy to intercede for her before God of heaven, and that
the said William White said to the same Margery, as this witness reports,
that the said Margery should follow him to his place of supplication because
she then would see that he had made many miracles because he wanted to
convert the people through his preaching and make the people rise up and
slay all the traitors who stood against it and his doctrine . . .
Also, that the same Margery taught and instructed this witness that she
should never go on a pilgrimage to Mary of Falsingham nor any other saint
or place.
4
3
William White, the well-known priest and a preacher of heretical ideas in Kent and Norwich,
was burned for heresy in 1428. John Waddon was also burned in Norwich in the same year.
4
Margery employs a pun on Walsingham, an important site of pilgrimage for the Virgin.
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The same Margery also said that Thomas Mone’s wife is the most learned
and most wise woman about the doctrine of William White, and that the
son of Richard Belward’s brother was a good teacher and first instructed her
in the doctrine and his beliefs.
5
This witness also said that the said Margery asked this witness that she
and the aforementioned Joanna, her servant, should come secretly to the
said Margery’s room at night, and there she would hear her husband read
the law of Christ to them, which law was written in one book which the
said husband usually read to Margery at night, and she said that her hus-
band is the best teacher of Christianity . . .
In addition, the said Margery spoke to this witness in this way: “Joanna,
it seems from your face that you intend and threaten to reveal the advice I
have told you to the bishop.” And this witness swore that she never wished to
reveal her counsel in this matter unless Margery herself gave her occasion
to do so. And then the said Margery said to this witness, “And if you were
to accuse me to the said bishop, I will do to you as I did to a Carmelite friar
of Yarmouth who was the most learned brother in the whole country.” This
witness replied to her, asking what she did to the said brother. And this
Margery responded that she spoke with the said brother, reproaching him
because he begged and because alms would not do or give him good unless
he was willing to give up his habit and go to the plough, and in that way he
would please the lord God more than by following the life of any other
friars. And then the friar asked Margery if there was anything else she wished
to say to or teach him. And Margery, so this witness says, expounded the
gospels in English to the said brother. And then this friar withdrew from
Margery, as this witness says, and afterwards the same friar accused Margery
of heresy. And Margery, hearing that the friar thus accused her, herself
accused the friar that he wanted to have known her carnally and, because
she was unwilling to consent, the friar accused her of heresy. And therefore
Margery said that her husband wanted to kill the friar for that reason and
so, for fear, the friar kept quiet and retreated in shame from the region.
The said Margery also said to this witness that she often made an insin-
cere confession to the dean of St. Mary of the Fields
6
to the effect that the
dean thought her to be of good life, and for that reason he often gave
Margery money. And then this witness asked her if she had not confessed all
her sins to a priest. And Margery said that she never brought evil to any
priest, and, therefore, she never wished to confess to a priest nor to obey
any priest because no priest has the power to absolve anyone of his or her
5
See the following excerpt for Hawise Moon’s confession.
6
The college of St. Mary of the Fields, Norwich.

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sins, and priests sin grievously every day more than other men. And the
same Margery further said that all men and women who are of the same
opinion as Margery are good priests, and that holy church exists only in the
places of those who are in her sect, and therefore Margery said that one
should confess to God alone and no other priest.
Then the said Margery also said to this witness that the people honor the
devils who fell from heaven with Lucifer, which devils, after they had fallen
to earth, entered into images standing in churches, and they continued to
live and still live latent in them in order that people worshipping them in
this way commit idolatry.
Then she said that the said Margery told this witness that blessed water
and blessed bread are nothing but trifles and of no value, and that all bells
are to be pulled down from churches and destroyed, and that all those who
oversee bells in churches are excommunicate.
The same Margery also said to this witness that Margery should not be
burnt even if she were convicted of Lollardy because, so she told this
witness, she had and has a charter of protection in her womb.
7
Also, the same Margery said that she prevailed in judgement over the lord
bishop of Norwich, Henry Inglese,
8
and the lords abbots who were with
them . . .
Hawise Moone, wife of Thomas Moone of Lodne
9
. . . In the name of God, tofore you, the worshipful fadir in Crist, William, be
the grace of God bisshop of Norwich, Y, Hawise Moone, the wyfe to Thomas
Moone of Lodne of your diocese, your subject, knowyng, felyng, and
undirstandyng that before this tyme Y have be right hoomly and prive with
many heretikes, knowyng [thaym] for heretikes, and thaym Y have receyved
and herberwed in our hous, and thaym Y have conceled, conforted, sup-
ported, maytened, and favored with al my poar
10
– whiche heretikes names be
these, Sir William Whyte, Sir William Caleys, Sir Huwe Pye, Sir Thomas Pert,
prestes, John Waddon, John Fowlyn, John Gray, William Everden, William
Bate of Sethyng, Bartholomeu Cornmonger, Thomas Borell and Baty, hys
wyf, William Wardon, John Pert, Edmond Archer of Lodne, Richard Belward,
Nicholas Belward, Bertholomeu Monk, William Wright, and many others
11
7
If Margery was pregnant, she could not be executed until after delivery.
8
I.e., Henry IV (r. 1422–61, 1470–1).
9
Southeast Norfolk.
10
power.
11
See note 3 for White and Waddon. William Caleys, Hugh Pye, William Bate, and Edmund
Archer were also burned as heretics. The others are relatives or members of a coherent group
in Coddon, Norfolk, and Tenterdon, Kent.
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– whiche have ofte tymes kept, holde, and continued scoles of heresie yn
prive chambres and prive places of oures, yn the whyche scoles Y have herd,
conceyved, lerned, and reported the errours and heresies which be writen
and contened in these indentures, that is to say:
Fyrst, that the sacrament of baptem doon in watir in forme customed in
the churche is but a trufle and not to be pondred, for alle Cristis puple is
sufficiently baptized in the blood of Crist, and so Cristis puple nedeth noon
other baptem.
Also, that the sacrament of confirmacion doon be a bisshop is of noon
availe ne necessarie to be had for as muche as whan a child hath discrecion
and can and wile undirstande the word of God, it is sufficiently confermed
be the Holy Gost and nedeth noon other confirmacion.
Also, that confession shuld be maad oonly to God and to noon other prest,
for no prest hath poar to remitte synne ne to assoile a man of ony synne.
Also, that no man is bounde to do no penance whiche ony prest enjoyneth
[hym] to do for here synnes whyche thei have confessed unto the pr[est],
for sufficient penance for all maner of synne is every persone to abstyne hym
fro lyyng, bakbytyng, and yvel doyng, and no man is bounde to do noon
other penance.
Also, that no prest hath poar to make Cristis veri body at messe in forme
of bred, but that aftir the sacramental wordis said at messe of the prest, ther
remayneth oonly material bred.
Also, that the pope of Roome is fadir Antecrist and fals in all hys werkyng,
and hath no poar of God more than ony other lewed man but if he be more
holy in lyvyng, ne the pope hath no poar to make bisshops, prestes, ne non
other ordres, and he that the puple callen the pope of Roome is no pope
but a fals extersioner and a deseyver of the puple.
Also, that he oonly that is moost holy and moost perfit in lyvyng in erthe
is verry pope, and these singemesses that be cleped prestes ben no prestes,
but thay be lecherous and covetouse men and fals deceyvours of the puple,
and with thar sotel techyng and prechyng, syngyng and redyng piteously
thay pile
12
the puple of thar good, and tharwith thay susteyne here pride,
here lechery, here slowthe, and alle other vices, and always thay makyn
newe lawes and newe ordinances to curse and kille cruelly all other persones
that holden ageyn thar vicious levyng.
Also, that oonly consent of love betuxe man and woman, withoute con-
tract of wordis and withoute solennizacion in churche and withoute symbred
askyng,
13
is sufficient for the sacrament of matrymoyn.
12
rob.
13
consanguineous asking, i.e., reading of the marriage banns.

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Also, it is but a trufle to enoynt a seke man with material oyle consecrat
be a bisshop, for it sufficeth every man at hys last ende oonly to have mende
of God.
Also, that every man may lefully withdrawe and withholde tythes and
offringes from prestes and curates and yeve hem to the pore puple, and that
is moore plesyng to God.
Also, that the temporal lordis and temporel men may lefully take alle
possessions and temporel godys from alle men of holy churche, and from
alle bysshops and prelates bothe hors and harneys, and gyve thar good to
pore puple, and therto the temporel men be bounde in payne of dedly synne.
[Als]o, that it is no synne ony persone to do the contrarie of the preceptes
[of ] holy churche.
Also that every man and every woman beyng in good lyf oute of synne is
as good prest and hath [as] muche poar of God in al thynges as ony prest
ordred, be he pope or bisshop.
Also, that censures of holy churche, sentences and cursynges, ne of
suspendyng yeven be prelates or ordinaries, be not to be dred ne to be
fered, for God blesseth the cursynges [of ] the bisshops and ordinaries.
Also, that it is not leful to swere in ony caas, ne it is not leful to pletyn
14
for onythyng.
Also, that is in not leful to slee a man for ony cause, ne be processe of
lawe to dampne ony traytour or ony man for ony treson or felonie to deth,
ne to putte ony man to deth for ony cause, but every man shuld remitte all
vengeance oonly to the sentence of God.
Also, that no man is bounde to faste in Lenton, Ymbren Days,
15
Fridays,
ne vigiles of seyntes, but all suche days and tymes it is leful to alle Cristis
puple to ete flessh and [all] maner metis indifferently at here owne lust as
ofte as thay have appetite as wel as ony other days whiche be not com-
manded to be fasted.
Also, that no pilgrimage oweth to be do ne be made, for all pilgrimage
goyng servyth of nothyng but oonly to yeve prestes good that be to riche
and to make gay tap[s]ters and proude ostelers.
Also, that no worship ne reverence oweth be do to ony ymages of the
crucifix, of Our Lady, ne of noon other seyntes, for all suche ymages be but
ydols and maade be werkyng of mannys hand, but worship and reverence
shuld be do to the ymage of God, whiche oonly is man.
14
take legal action.
15
Ember days, i.e., any of four groups of three prayer and fasting days (Wednesday, Friday,
and Saturday) after Pentecost, the first Sunday in Lent, the feast of St. Lucy, and the feast of
the Holy Cross.
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Also, that al prayer oweth be maad oonly to God and to noon other
seyntes, for it is doute if thar be ony suche seyntes in hevene as these
singemesse aproven and commaunden to be worsheped and prayed to here
in erthe.
Because of whiche and many other errours and heresies, Y am called
tofore you, worshipful fadir, whiche have cure of my soule. And be you fully
informed that the said myn affermyng, belevyng, and holdyng be opin
errours and heresies, and contrarious to the determinacion of the churche of
Roome, wherefor Y willyng folwe and sue the doctrine of holy churche and
departe from al maner of errour and heresie, and turne with good will and
herte to the oonhed
16
of the churche. Considerand that holy churche spereth
not hyr bosom to hym that wil turne agayn, ne God wil not the deth of a
synner but rather that he be turned and lyve, with a pure herte Y confesse,
deteste, and despise my sayd errours and heresies, and these said opinions Y
confesse hereticous and erroneous and to the feith of the churche of Rome
and all universall holy churche repugnant. And for as muche as be the said
thinges that Y so held, beleved, and affermed, Y shewed meself corrupt and
unfaithful, that from hensforth Y shewe me uncorrupt and faithful, the feith
and doctrine of holy churche truly to kepe Y promitte. And all maner of
errour and heresie, doctrine and opinion ageyn the feith of holy churche
and determinacion of the churche of Roome – and namely the opinions
before rehersed – Y abjure and forswere, and swere be these holy gospels be
me bodely touched that from hensforth Y shal never holde errour ne heresie
ne fals doctrine ageyn the feith of holy churche and determinacion of the
churche of Roome. Ne no suche thinges Y shal obstinatly defende, ne ony
persone holdyng or techyng suche maner of thynges Y shal obstinatly defende
be me or ony other persone opinly or prively. Y shal never aftir this time be
no recettour, fautour,
17
consellour, or defensour of heretikes or of ony
persone suspect of heresie. Ne Y shal never trowe to thaym. Ner wittyngly
Y shal felaship with thaym, ne be hoomly with tham, ne gyve thaym consell,
sokour, favour, ne confort. Yf Y knowe ony heretikes or of heresie ony per-
sones suspect or of thaym fautours, confortours, consellours, or defensours,
or of ony persone makyng prive conventicules or assembles, or holdyng ony
divers or singuler opinions from the commune doctrine of the churche, Y
shal late you, worshipful fadir, or your vicar general in your absence or the
diocesans of suche persones, have sone and redy knowyng. So help me God
atte holy doom and these holy gospels.
16
unity.
17
supporter.

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In wittenesse of which thinges Y subscribe here with myn owen hand a
cross +. And to this partie indented to remayne in your registre Y sette my
signet. And that other partie indented Y receyve undir your seel to abide
with me unto my lyves ende. Yoven at Norwich in the chapell of your palays
the fourth day of the moneth of August the yer of our Lord a thousand four
hundred and thretty.