Qarshi davlat universiteti roman-german filologiyasi fakulteti lingvistika kafedrasi

And
Fabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about the 
human race. 
And
he’s right. 
(Wilson)
According to their 
morphological structure
conjunctions are divided into the 
following groups: 
(1) 
simple
conjunctions 
(and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, 
etc.). 
Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and 
pronouns. 
(2) 
derivative
conjunctions 
(until, unless, 
etc.). 
(3) 
compound
conjunctions 
(however, 
whereas, 
wherever, 
etc.). 
These 
conjunctions are few. 
(4) 
composite
conjunctions (as 
well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the 
ground that, for the reason that, 
etc.). 

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73 
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): 
both
... 
and, either
... 
or, not 
only
... 
but (also), neither
... 
nor, whether... or.
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would have 
seemed to him 
both 
ridiculous 
and
sentimental. 
(Galsworthy)
...nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick 
either
of 
vision 
or
conception. 
(Ch. Bronte)
Her son had 
not only 
come home, 
but 
he had come home a good person. 
(Abrahams)
Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was 
neither
smallness 
nor 
meanness. 
(London)
He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but 
whether 
he had 
been beaten by the storm for two days 
or
two weeks he did not know. 
(London)
As to their 
function 
conjunctions fall under two classes: 
(1) coordinating conjunctions; 
(2) subordinating conjunctions. 
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or 
homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses 
in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d). 
(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, 
but
he simply couldn’t any
more; 
and
crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. 
(Galsworthy)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join 
a 
subordinate or dependent clause to a 
principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence 
(b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c). 
(a) 
When 
he was eight, he got work in another mill. 
(London)
(b) He shook his head a bit 
as If 
in wonder that he had permitted himself to be 
caught in such crosscurrents. 
(Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she 
spoke with extreme, 
though
suppressed irritation. 
(Ch. Bronte)
 
Words commonly 
Misspelled 
The CAE exam includes proof-reading activities. Those relating to extra words 
have been dealt with in earlier units. Those relating to punctuation and spelling 
are looked at in this unit. 

Common errors 
Learners can benefit by making lists of the words they most frequently misspell. 
The words listed here are spelled correctly. 
accommodation, address, advertisement, beginning, committee, conscience, curiosity, 
disappear, disappointed, embarrassed, faithfully, favourite, forbidden, government, guarantee, 
immediately, independent, jealous, journey 
Words with similar spelling but different meanings. 

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74 
altogether 
This means 'completely'. 
all together 
This describes a group of things or people in one place. 
effect 
verb: bring about, make; noun: result 
affect 
have an effect on 
lose 
verb: fail to have or find 
loose 
adjective: not tight 
specially 
for a special purpose 
especially 
particularly 
Words with the same pronunciation but different spelling and meaning. This is 
a selection, as there are many of these: 
allowed - aloud 
bear - bare 
fair - fare 
hair - hare 
pear - pair 
piece - peace 
practice (n) 
- 
practise (v) 

Commas 
Commas are used to separate items in lists, before question tags, to separate 
clauses, after and around certain linking words.
I've been to Dallas, New Orleans, Kansas and Tampa Bay. 
Sue is a lovely girl, isn't she? 
If you see Kevin, tell him his photocopies are ready. 
Broadly speaking, I agree with what you are saying. 
I do not, however, agree with your last point. 
Note that commas are not used between a subject and its verb, or in defining 
relative clauses. 
The lady standing over there at the bus stop is my next-door neighbour. 
Will the pupil who threw that paper dart please stand up now. 

Apostrophes 
Apostrophes are used to indicate letters omitted, possession and plurals of 
letters and figures. 
Letters omitted: 
It's warm today. 
Possession: 
Jack's car, the player's entrance, the people's decision 
Possessive 
its 
does not have an apostrophe. 
Plurals: 
There are two I's in 'specially'. Are these 7's or 3's? 

Colons and semi-colons 
Colons introduce examples, lists, and statements which give in detail what 
has been stated in general. 
There were two possible courses of action: borrowing from the bank, or asking 
for more time to find the money elsewhere. 

Semi-colons divide parts of long sentences or long phrases in a list; it is 
usually possible to divide one sentence into shorter ones, so that semi-colons 
are unnecessary. 

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