partly due to the fact that the
men were stronger.
•
Due to the danger of fire, people are advised not to drop cigarettes on the ground.
through
preposition
because of something.
Through is used especially when saying
why someone succeeded or failed to do something:
• She succeeded
through her own efforts.
• They managed to win the game,
partly through luck and partly through skill.
• Thousands of working days are lost each year
through illness.
thanks to
used when explaining that something good has happened because of
someone's efforts, or because something exists:
• Today,
thanks to the Internet, people can do all their shopping from home.
•
Thanks to advances in modern medicine, the disease can now be cured.
• Reinhardt survived the war,
mainly thanks to the help of a German officer who loved
his music.
since
(also
as
British English)
conjunction
used when giving the reason why someone
decides to do something or decides that something is true:
• As it was a hot day, they decided to leave all the windows open.
• Since it is difficult to predict how the climate will change, it is not possible to say which
countries will suffer the most.
in view of
a formal phrase used when introducing the reason for someone's decision,
or when saying that something is an important thing to consider:
• The court decided that
in view of his age, he should be released.
•
In view of all the research on the subject, it seems strange that so many people still
smoke cigarettes.
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• Most British people do not want to change from the pound to the Euro. This may seem
surprising
in view of the fact that they often use Euros on their holidays.
out of
preposition
because of a particular feeling or quality:
• He started reading the book
out of curiosity.
• She asked the question
out of politeness.
•
Out of desperation, he tried to borrow money from his neighbour.
3. Words meaning 'but' or 'although'
but
conjunction
used when linking two words or phrases that seem opposite or very
different in meaning:
• The plant's leaves are big,
but its flowers are quite small.
• Her books are fascinating
but often rather disturbing.
• Many French dishes are basically simple,
but they can take a long time to prepare.
• Most of us value human life,
but some people think of animals as being equally
important.
although
conjunction
used when contrasting one clause with another in the same
sentence:
•
Although you are in the middle of the city, you feel as if you are in the countryside.
• The windmill is still in good working order,
although it has not been used since the
1950s.
•
Although lack of sleep causes some problems, it has a relatively small effect on
performance at work.
however / nevertheless
conjunction
used when saying something that seems very
different or surprising after your previous statement.
However and nevertheless are
usually used when referring back to the previous sentence:
• Their economy was incredibly successful in the 1980s. Since then,
however, there has
been a big rise in unemployment.
• The town is a long way from the nearest big city.
However, there is a good bus service.
• A series of studies 20 years ago suggested that there was a link between watching
violent films and violent behaviour.
Nevertheless, the results remain highly
controversial.
• It was very hard digging in the dry ground, but the work was satisfying
nevertheless.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
However is usually used in the middle of a sentence, separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas:: Jack and his family managed to escape before the soldiers
arrived. Other families in the village, however, were less lucky.
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Or it comes at the beginning of a sentence: He began his academic career as a
mathematician. However, his main achievements were in the field of nuclear physics.
Nevertheless is usually used at the beginning of a sentence, or at the end.
whereas / while
conjunction
used when making comparisons and saying that
something is true of one person, thing, or situation, but it is different for another.
Whereas and while are used when contrasting one clause with another in the same
sentence:
• Taxes make up 62% of the price of a litre of petrol in France,
whereas in Britain, the
tax is 75%.
• Some people visit their doctor once every few weeks,
while others may not visit a
doctor for several years.
•
Whereas in most of the world they drive on the right, in the UK and Japan they drive on
the left.
by contrast
used when making comparisons and saying that a person, thing, or
situation is very different from the one you have just mentioned.
By contrast is used
when referring back to the previous sentence:
• The surface temperature on Venus is higher than the boiling point of water. Mars,
by
contrast, is very cold
• A report by the FBI shows that 26% of female murder victims in 1995 were killed by
their husbands or boyfriends. By contrast, only 3% of male victims were killed by their
wives or girlfriends.
yet
conjunction
used when introducing a fact that seems surprising after what you have
just said:
• Last summer there was a drought,
yet some people were still watering their gardens
every day.
• We all know that fibre is important for good health.
And yet all the natural fibre is
removed from many foods such as white bread and sugar.
even so
used when saying that something is true, in spite of a fact that you have just
mentioned:
• Morris's furniture is distinctly English.
Even so, the sale drew a lot of American interest.
• The economy continues to do well, but
even so, many analysts are predicting a
slowdown in the near future.
in spite of / despite
preposition
even though something happens or is true:
• This was a dinosaur that weighed only 10 tons,
in spite of being some 28 metres long.
•
In spite of everything that has happened, life is still getting better for many Russians.
71
•
Despite his lack of formal education, he became one of the world's leading
mathematicians.
• Many people are worried that cellphones may be dangerous to health,
despite the fact
that most of the research suggests that there is little risk.
4. Words meaning 'if'
if
conjunction
used when talking about the possibility that something might happen or be
true:
•
If the scientists' predictions are correct, average global temperatures could rise by 6
degrees.
• He faced a long prison sentence
if the court found him guilty.
• The report said that the accident could have been avoided
if the correct safety
procedures had been followed.
• Most countries are prepared to use force,
if necessary, to protect their national
interests.
• The patient should be kept in the same position,
if possible.
• The injury needed to be treated immediately.
If not, infection could set in.
• The British authorities could not help,
even if they wanted to.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
When using
if to talk about the future, you normally use the simple present tense.
For example, don't say 'If it will rain, the game will be canceled', when you mean:
If it
rains, the game will be canceled.
unless
conjunction
if something does not happen, or if someone does not do
something:
•
Unless something is done quickly, developing countries will fall even further behind
Western countries.
• The star is really difficult to see
unless the sky is dark and very clear.
• The doctors said they could not treat the boy
unless and until his parents gave their
permission.
whether or not
used when saying that it does not matter if something happens or
not, or if something is true or not:
• Research showed that six out of 10 patients got better on their own,
whether or not
they received treatment.
•
Whether or not you agree with what she is saying, her articles are always interesting
and thought-provoking.
otherwise
adverb
used when saying that there will be a bad result if someone does
not do something, or if something does not happen:
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• The committee needs to act quickly,
otherwise there could be a serious problem.
• The local people are certainly glad that the tourists are there.
Otherwise there would
be no money and no jobs.
in case
in order to deal with something that might happen:
• Doctors have to take out insurance to protect themselves
in case they are sued.
• It is best to keep a medical kit ready
in case of emergency.
• She did not think it would rain, but she took her umbrella
just in case.
assuming that
if what you think will happen is true:
•
Assuming that the present trend continues, the world population is likely to rise to
over 8 billion.
• This sort of floor covering can be laid directly onto concrete floors,
assuming that they
are level.
as long as / provided that
conjunction
only if something else happens or is true:
• Vegetarian diets are perfectly healthy,
provided that you take care to get enough iron,
calcium and B vitamins.
•
As long as the economy continues to grow, people will continue to support the
government.
on condition that
used when you agree to do something only if someone first
agrees to do something else:
• He was offered the job
on condition that he went on a month-long training course.
• The painting was sold
on condition that it never left France.
in the event of / that
if something happens, especially a serious situation such as
an accident, a fire, or a war:
• Guidelines have been isued to local authorities on what to do
in the event of a nuclear
accident.
•
In the event of an earthquake, people are advised to take cover under desks or
doorways.
•
In the event that the party lost the election, his future as party leader would be in
doubt.
5. Words meaning 'in order to'
in order to
for the purpose of doing something:
• Some people steal
in order to buy drugs.
•
In order to prove his theory, he carried out a series of experiments.
73
• Plants need light
in order to survive.
• The speech was changed
in order not to offend anyone.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
in order to is used especially in formal contexts. In all other contexts people often just
write
to, for example: The organization was set up originally to protect the rights of
children.
•
To make sure that the job was done properly, Mr Lobov appointed three new deputy
ministers.
so (that)
conjunction
used when saying why someone does something or what the
result of something is:
• Workers need to learn new skills so that they can keep up with the latest advances in
technology.
• Doctors use miniature cameras so that they can see inside the patients' stomachs.
• The windows are designed so that you can see out, but other people cannot see in.
for
preposition
for a particular reason or purpose:
• She went into hospital
for a checkup.
• Some people give up eating meat
for health reasons, while others give up because
they are concerned about animal welfare.
• The land is used
for agricultural purposes.
with the aim of doing something
in order to try and achieve something:
• The dam was built
with the aim of providing drinking water to thousands of people.
• Talks were held in Paris
with the aim of helping the two sides reach an agreement.
with a view to doing something
because you are planning to do something later
in the future, and this will help you to do it:
• They wanted to establish closer links with Germany,
with a view to becoming
members of the European Union.
• Rice and potatoes were genetically modified,
with a view to commercial planting.
6. Words meaning 'or'
or
conjunction
used between two possibilities or choices, or before the last one in a list
of possibilities or choices:
• It is important not to get the chemicals on your hands
or your clothes.
• Payment can be made by cash, cheque
or credit card.
• There is very little difference between the two species of bird,
either in size or colour.
74
alternatively
adverb
used when giving another choice apart from the one you have
already mentioned:
• You can go up into the mountains.
Alternatively, you can stroll around one of
Switzerland's delightful cities where the old mixes with the new.
• For a master's degree, 12 months' full-time study is normally required, or
alternatively
24 months of part-time study.
on the one hand ... on the other (hand)
used when giving two very different
ideas or opinions about something, especially when they need to be balanced against
each other:
•
On the one hand, the internet gives students access to information on every
imaginable topic.
On the other, there is a lot of material on the internet that is very
unsuitable for students.
•
On the one hand, it is important not to limit individual freedom too much, but on the
other hand, people have the right to be able to live their lives in peace.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Don't say 'on one hand'. Say
on the one hand.
7. Words meaning 'therefore'
therefore
adverb
used when saying that something happens or someone does
something as a result of something else:
• She already had a lot of experience and
therefore seemed the best candidate for the
job.
• Many old people have some form of disability or health problem. It is not surprising,
therefore, that they are the biggest users of the health care system.
• The Japanese writing system has thousands of characters.
Therefore it takes a long
time to learn.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Therefore is more formal than so.
You can use
therefore in the middle of a sentence, or at the beginning of a sentence.
You use
so in the middle of a sentence, usually after a comma.
so
conjunction
used when saying that something happens or someone does something
as a result of something else:
• They had not eaten all day,
so they were very hungry.
• Questions have been raised over the safety of the toys,
and so they are being
withdrawn from the market.
75
thus
adverb
a formal word, meaning as a result of what you have just mentioned:
• The dinosaurs all died out within a short period of time.
Thus it seems likely that there
must have been some kind of catastrophic event.
• The program is very simple
and thus easy to run.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Thus is more formal than therefore, and is used especially in formal writing.
hence
adverb
a formal word, meaning for this reason:
• This material is highly poisonous,
hence the importance of careful handling.
• Their names sound very similar.
Hence they are often confused with each other.
as a result
use this to say that because of a particular situation, something else
happens or is true:
• Some people suffer from stress at work and become ill
as a result.
• The farmer could not pump water onto his field and,
as a result, he had grown only
twenty tons of melons compared to eighty before the war.
• Economic growth slowed down
as a result of inflation.
•
As a result of her injuries, she was forced to abandon her hopes of going to medical
school.
consequently / as a consequence
adverb
use this to say that because of a
particular situation, something else happens or is true:
• The disease attacks the plant, the flower does not open, and
consequently no seeds
are produced.
• More people are using their cars, and
as a consequence many rural bus services
have been severely reduced.
•
As a consequence of global warming, our climate is already starting to change.
• Lead remains forever in the atmosphere.
Consequently, this year's lead pollution will
add to that of all previous years.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Consequently and as a consequence are more formal than as a result.
for this reason / for these reasons
used when explaining the reason for
something:
• She was not very good at ball games.
For this reason she did not care much for sport
or physical activities.
• If you live in a big city, housing is very expensive and there is so much pollution
. For
these and other reasons, more and more people are choosing to move out to the
country.
76
with the result that
use this to say that because of a particular situation, another
situation exists or happens:
• Both laboratories were completely re-equipped last year,
with the result that we now
have the most modern facilities in the country.
• Taxes were increased, with the result that people had to work harder if they wanted to
maintain their standard of living.
this means that
used when saying what the result of something is:
• Childcare is very expensive.
This means that many women cannot afford to go back
to work after having children.
• If students arrive late,
this can mean that a large part of the lesson time is wasted.
thereby
adverb
a formal word, used when saying what the result of something is. You
use
thereby in the middle of a sentence, usually after a comma:
• The two companies were merged,
thereby creating a single company.
• If our homes are properly insulated, we need to use less oil or gas,
thereby cutting the
cost of heating them.
accordingly
adverb
a formal word, meaning as a result of what you have just said:
• Too much alcohol can be harmful to health.
Accordingly, on this diet you are allowed
only one or two units of alcohol per day.
• He had disobeyed an order from a senior officer, and
accordingly he was dismissed
from the army.
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Listing & Ordering
1. What you say when ordering a group of things that you want to mention
2. Ways of introducing a list of reasons, causes, points etc
1. What you say when ordering a group of things that you want to
mention
firstly / first
adverb
used when mentioning the first in a list of reasons, arguments, or
parts of an essay:
• There are two main reasons why people choose this type of investment.
Firstly, it is
relatively safe. Secondly, it offers a good rate of interest.
• The statistics show,
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