CHAPTER II. DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE VARIOUS GERMANIC
LANGUAGES
2.1.Differences within the various Germanic languages
Thus in the 1st century A.D. Germanic languages were only spoken in
Germany and in territories adjacent to it and also in Scandinavia. It is considered
that they lived in the territory between the rivers Elbe and Odra, on the peninsula
Jutland and in the Southern Sweden
9
.
At that time old Germanic tribes were passing through the stage of
development which is marked by the term “barbarism”. From archaeology it is
clear that the Germans had little ethnic solidarity; by the 7th cent. B.C. they had
begun a division into many peoples. They did not call themselves Germans; the
origin of the name is uncertain.
Their rise to significance (4th cent. B.C.) in the history of Europe began
roughly with the general break-up of Celtic culture in central Europe. From these
areas they spread out in great migrations southward, south-eastward, and westward.
Geography made it attractive to the Romans as a potential province to add
to the already powerful Roman Empire. The combination of natural resources,
agriculture, and strategic value made the Romans eager to gain acquisition of this
territory. The main resources that Germany had to offer came in the form of metals,
more specifically, iron. Their iron was of such quality and was acquired in such
abundance that it was exported to Rome for use in most everything that was created
from iron.
The German agricultural system was vital to the economy in Germany. Most
of the Germans were farmers but a large portion of the population was herders.The
Germans were agriculturists from the beginning of their existence. They
established agricultural villages based on land plots that were grouped around a
central water supply. The main crops that they raised were cereal grains such as
wheat, barley, oats, and rye.
9
The Germanic Languages in a Comparative Perspective edited by Ulrich Ammon et al. (2017, p-42
19
Around the North Sea area there was an emphasis on cattle raising. Germany
also had a great strategic advantage that was appealing to the Romans. First of all
it could be used to protect Gaul north of the Danube which had already come under
Rome influence. Germany also provided for a buffer from Gaul. The tribes that
eventually settled in the Germanic area were tribes that had for the most part been
migrating throughout Europe for many years.
Our knowledge of the ancient Germans is based on the testimonies by Greek
and Roman writers, who for certain reasons were interested in them.
The earliest of them was the Greek traveller and astronomer Pytheas from
Massilia (now Marseiilles) who lived in the 4th century B.C. He sailed from his
native town through the Gibraltar along the west coast of France to the Baltic. His
book has not come down to us, only some pieces of it were preserved by the Greek
geographer Strabo
Pytheas was the first who mentioned the Teutons.
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote about the Teutons in his great work
Natural History. He gave a classification of Germanic tribes.
The tribes of the fifth group can be joined with the first group.
This classification still coincides with the modern point of view on the
classification of ancient Germanic languages and is correlated with modern
Germanic languages. The physical features of each tribe were very similar to each
other. Tacitus described the Germans as blond-haired, blue-eyed people with large
frames. Other accounts tell of reddish-blond-haired figures that were well built and
long skulled. Their facial features are preserved on Roman monuments.
Although the earliest mention of the Germans is by a Greek navigator who
saw them in Norway and Jutland in the 4
th
cent. B.C., their real appearance in
history began with their contact (1
st
cent. B.C.) with the Romans. The Roman
general, statesman and writer Julius Caesar (100 – 44 B.C.) in his Commentaries
on the War in Gaul gives several chapters to the Germans, whom he combated and
dealt with on the Rhine. Apart from describing their barbarity and warlikeness,
20
Caesar Commentaries tell little. It also follows from Caesar’s account that the
Teutons were nomads in his time.
In the 1st century A.D. Germanic languages were only spoken in Germany
and in territories adjacent to it and also in Scandinavia. It is considered that they
lived in the territory between the rivers Elbe and Odra, on the peninsula Jutland
and in the Southern Sweden. At that time old Germanic tribes were passing through
the stage of development which is marked by the term “barbarism”. From
archaeology it is clear that the Germans had little ethnic solidarity; by the 7th cent.
B.C. they had begun a division into many peoples. They did not call themselves
Germans; the origin of the name is uncertain. Their rise to significance (4th cent.
B.C.) in the history of Europe began roughly with the general break-up of Celtic
culture in central Europe. From these areas they spread out in great migrations
southward, south-eastward, and westward. Geography made it attractive to the
Romans as a potential province to add to the already powerful Roman Empire.
The earliest mention of the British Isles is in the 4
th
cent. B.C. by Pytheas.
At that time Britain was inhabited by Celtic tribes. In the 5
th
cent. A.D. Britain was
conquered by three Germanic tribes the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. These
tribes were included into the group of the Ingaevones according to the classification
of Pliny the Elder. The Britons fought against the conquerors for about a century
and a half. (According to legends, they were led by a mysterious king Arthur). The
Angles occupied most of the territory north of Thames, the Saxons – south to the
Thames, the Jutes in Kent and in the Isle of Wight.
The word “rune” is translated as “secret” (compare old Celtic “run”, middle
Welsh “row”, modern German “reunion”). The most important sources about runic
history are ancient texts of Scandinavian pagan religion – Old Edda by Brolo
Swenson and Lesser Edda by Snorri Sturluson
10
.
German runic writing was the letter system of peculiar look, accounted by
the writing technique on bone, wood and metal.
10
The Germanic Languages in a Comparative Perspective edited by Ulrich Ammon et al. (2017, p-42
21
Tombstones, altars, pagan pillars called “runic stones” are found with
miscellaneous writings (Gotland, Upland, Norway). The most famous is Ciller
stone, which dates from the 5-th c. So we can find a lot of writings on jewels and
weapon, for barbarians believed things had to possess their own names
(breakbeats).
There are two main theories: 1) Runic writing appeared on the basis of Latin
alphabet; 2) cradles of these signs are in Transalpine and North Italian scripts.
Scientists have a lot of historical facts, approving that Etruscan merchants used this
system. Probably they brought it to the North (6-th c. B.C.).
However some researchers think that runes cropped up in Germanic tribes
from ancient Rome Latin writing. But the construction of runic alphabet (RA) is
different from others – for example, order of the first letters.
Many runic symbols were used as icons, showing various things and
animals. Some runologists suppose that even in the most developed variant they
are close to pictures: rune “Fehr” f symbolizes cattle, Theresa – thorn, Wingo w –
weathercock, Algid z – elk, Zin s– lightning, Yr. u – bow, Edhas m – horse.
The top of development and complete formation of RA system was in the
sings appeared in the middle of the 6-th c. In Britain where German runes
penetrated in the 5-th c. with Anglo-Saxon invasion, Frisian futhark was improved
by some additions and changes (mostly combined runes) and numbered 29 units.
In the middle of the 7-th c. the tendency to simplification appeared – some
runes changed in inscription; some were lost. To the middle of the 10-th c. the
number of runes decreased to 16 units and late futhark formed. MIT was purely
writing system, which wasn’t used for fortune telling. It got wide spreading not
only in the territory of German Empire, but in the North too, for example in
Denmark and Sweden. The next step in development of RA took place in the
middle of the 12-th c. by adding dots to 16 sign system (dotted alphabet). It was
used along with Latin one till the 16-th c. We can find its variants in Slavonic
manuscripts.
22
Some scholars claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, while
others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin. There
are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about
800 AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date.
The Gothic alphabet is an alphabetic writing system used exclusively for
writing the ancient Gothic language. Before its creation, Gothic was written in
Gothic runes. Latin was introduced into Germanic languages later in order to
organize church service. First glosses appeared to render the names into Latin. The
Latin alphabet of that time had only 23 letters (without J,W,V).
The most important sources about runic history are ancient texts of
Scandinavian pagan religion – Old Edda by Brolo Swenson and Lesser Edda by
Snorri Sturlusson.German runic writing was the letter system of peculiar look,
accounted by the writing technique on bone, wood and metal. Tombstones, altars,
pagan pillars called “runic stones” are found with miscellaneous writings
(Gothland, Upland, Norway). The most famous is Cilwer stone, which dates from
the 5-th c. So we can find a lot of writings on jewels and weapon, for barbarians
believed things had to possess their own names (breakteats).
Stress is the emphasis (shown by more forceful, louder, and higher-pitched
voice) given to some syllables (usually no more than one in each word). In many
languages, long words have a secondary stress a few syllables away from the
primary stress. Some languages have fixed stress, i.e. stress is placed always on a
given syllable, as in French (where words are always stressed in the last syllable)
or Quechua (always on the penultima – the syllable before the last one). Other
languages have stress placed on different syllables in a predictable way (they are
said to have a regular stress rule), such as Latin
11
.
There are also languages like English or Spanish, where stress is
unpredictable and arbitrary, being lexical – it comes as part of the word and must
be learned with it. In this kind of a language two words can differ only by the
11
Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages by Orrin W.
Robinson (1992, p-46
23
position of the stress, and therefore it’s possible to use stress as a derivative or
inflectional device.
It is considered that in Indo-European the stress used to be musical and fixed.
But in Germanic it became fixed on the root syllable and turned into the dynamic
one. Ancient Germanic system of conso-nants was different from that of Indo-
European in the number of stops and fricatives. Germanic languages had more
fricatives than stops, Indo-European – v.v. Germanic consonants included labials
p,b,f; dentals t,d,th; back sounds k,g,h; kw,gw,xw. These changes are explained by
shifts
Documented. Not only personal names. According to Langobard historian
Paulus Diaconus the Langobards originated in Scandinavia. His source material
seems to have indicated that the Langobards originally emigrated from the island
of Scandinavia (Scadan, Scadanan). There are possibly around 400 langobardic
words remaining in the Italian language (see for instance P.Scardigli, "All'origine
dei langobardismi in italiano" in Festschrift Betz, Tubingen, 1977, pp. 335 – 354).
There is only one more extensive source on the Langobardic language
existing (Wilhelm Bruckner, Die Sprache der Langobarden, Strassburg 1895, new
edition Berlin 1969). A great number of the remaining "ruins" are legal terms. New
finds documented after Bruckner have come to light (Beck, p. 195). Around 2,000
personal names have been documented. Word lists can be found in Jorgen
Jarnut,
Prosopographische
und
sozialgeschichtliche
Studien
zum
Langobardenreich in Italien
This section is intended to present a closer reading of the views of the
classical authors on the name Scandinavia (in modern times a designation for
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Iceland). Much of this analysis was
presented by Professor J. Svennung in his well-known Scadinavia und Scandia –
Lateinisch-Nordische Namenstudien (Uppsala 1963).
The modern name form Scandinavia (Skandinavien) is actually an incorrect
reading from bad manuscripts of Historia Naturalis by Pliny the Elder. Correctly it
should be Scadinavia.
24
The Roman geographer Mela in Chorographia (AD 43) used the corrupted
form Codanovia, which in turn was influenced by Codanum earlier in the text. Far
into the Middle Ages people on the continent thought that the Nordic countries
were islands in the Ocean. The Pliny name form was used. The Fredegar used
Scathanavia and Origio Gentis Langobardorum introduced Scadan. In the late
Middle Ages Scandinavia was identified with Scania (Swedish Skane) which since
1658 is the name of Sweden's southernmost province. Before that it was Danish for
around 600 years forming the easternmost part of that kingdom.
Linguists have reconstructed the proto-Germanic form as *Skathin-
aujo or *Skadin-aujo, which would correspond to the classical Scadinavia of the
Romans. The latter part of the word means 'island' or 'land on the water'. In modern
languages it has become 'ö' (in Swedish), 'ey' (in Old English), 'ey' in Icelandic and
finally 'Aue' (in German).
12
There is disagreement among scholars on the first element of the word
(Scadin-). Common is the connection between a fish-name: 'shad in English) and
'skadd' (in Norwegian). This author is inclined to rely on the interpretation
connecting Scadin- to skada (in Swedish) and Old Norse skadi which is equal to
'damage' in the concrete sense of 'danger'. In turn this danger is to be connected to
the submarine sandbanks outside the small town of Skanor in Skane. They were
extremely dangerous to ships and resulted in a large number of ship-wrecks.
To return to Pliny he did not only use the designation Scadinavia but also
Scandiae to mean the islands in the Ocean. Later in the second century AD Ptolemy
referred to four Skandiai islands in the Ocean of which the largest was Skandia,
situated farthest to the east. It is not hard to imagine that Ptolemy meant the Danish
islands and Skane being the largest situated to the east and to the north of the
Danish islands.
In his book Getica Jordanes in 551 AD used the vulgar Latin form Scandza.
The identity of Scadinavia and Scandia must be rather secure designating the
12
Gothic Language: Grammar, Genesis and Glossary edited by Andreas Möhn and Thomas Olander
(2014, p-38
25
largest island (that of the southernmost part of the Scandinavian peninsula). It can
easily be presumed that early travellers had only sighted Scania not parts further
north of the peninsula. The different names used must mean that the classical
scientists had used different sources. When Jordanes mentioned tribes or peoples
living on the Scandinavian peninsula he often named them differently.
Both the Danish islands and Scania have well deserved the designation
'dangerous'. The low sandy coast and the sandbanks always presented dangers to
the sea-travellers. Here ought to be mentioned the most notorious and dangerous
sandbank, 'Falsterbo rev' in the vicinity of the small towns of Skanor (mentioned
above) and Falsterbo. The Falsterbo sandbank is off a small peninsula in the south-
western part of Scania. It moves continually and changes the conditions.
Seacurrents is making the shape of the sandbank unpredictable. In the beginning of
the Christian era the area was even more dangerous. The whole peninsula was
largely under water as the sea-level was then three to six feets higher than it now
is. Due to sand-drift it presently has a height of around six feet.
The present name Scandinavia is most likely a confusion of Scandia and
Scadinavia. The name of the town Skanor is probably derived from *skathn- and –
or ('sand-shore'). The ending –or is common in the region. Compare for instance
the city-name Helsingor (Elsinore as in the Castle Elsinore of Shakespeare's
Hamlet on the Island of Zealand at the narrowest point of the Baltic Sea, the Sound
(Oresund).
13
Of greatest interest here is the Langobardic scadan and we actually have a
strong support for the relation to 'danger' and 'damage' in Origo Gentis
Langobardorum itself: "Scadan, quod interpretatur 'excidia'" the last word meaning
'ruin', 'destruction'.
The first part of the Langobard name belongs to langs (Gothic) and Germanic
'lang' (Protogermanic *langa-) =long. Paulus Diaconus refers to the special beards
of male Langobards. Thus one of the possible etymologies is 'long beards'.
13
The Germanic Languages in a Comparative Perspective edited by Ulrich Ammon et al. (2017, p-42
26
Etymologists have also sought to explain the second part of the name (bard)
in relation to a battleaxe. Stonecarvings in Scania and in western Sweden depict a
number of men armed with axes from the later Bronze Age (1000 – 500 BC). The
battle axe was a common weapon of the vikings. So the relation of axes to
Scandinavia is around 2000 years old. The Scanian Hunnestad monument shows a
man armed with an axe (one hand battle axe). The variation of viking axes is large
and they are archaelogically confirmed. These axes are asymmetric. A onehand
battle axe had a handle around 25 inches long. Some of these axes were named
"skaggyxa" (beard axe or barda). The most important part was the edge and the
weapon smiths devoted most of the time to create broad edges. Thus the one hand
battle axes could be as broad as the broad axes. The top part could be made into a
hook. Thus the "beard axe" could be used to draw the enemy warrior closer if it
was advantageous and if there was opportunity. Twohand axes were broader and
the handles could be up to 50 inches
14
.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |