The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan

CHAPTER I
Review of linguistic literature on prefixes
§ - 1. Word-formation

Word-formation is the process оf creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. For instance, the noun driver is formed after the pattern v + -er, i.e. a verb-stem + the noun-forming suffix -er. The meaning of the noun driver is related to the meanings of the stem drive- and the suffix –er; “a driver is one who drives (a carriage, motorcar, railway engine, etc.)”. Likewise compounds result­ing from two or more stems joined together to form a new word are also built on quite definite structural and semantic patterns and formulas, cf., for instance, adjectives of the snow-white type built according to the formula n + adj., i.e. a noun-stem + an adjective stem: coal-black, age-long, care­free, etc. It can easily be observed that the meaning of the whole compound is also related to the meanings of the com­ponent parts.

It should be noted that the understanding of word-formation as expounded here excludes semantic word-building. By semantic word-building some linguists understand any change in word-meaning, e.g. stock - 'the lower part of the trunk of a tree'; 'something lifeless or stupid'; 'the part of an in­strument that serves as a base', et c.; bench - 'a long seat of wood or stone'; 'a carpenter's table', etc. The majority of linguists, however, understand this process only as a change in the meaning of a word that may result in the appearance of homonyms, as is the case with flower-'a blossom' and flour -'the fine meal', 'powder, made from wheat and used for making bread'; magazine – ‘a publication' and magazine - 'the chamber for cartridges in a gun or rifle', etc. The ap­plication of the term word-formation to the process of se­mantic change and to the appearance of homonyms due to the development of polysemy seems to be debatable for the following reasons:
As semantic change does not, as a rule, lead to the in­troduction of a new word into the vocabulary, it can scarcely be regarded as a word-building means. Neither can we consider the process a word-building means even when an actual en­largement of the vocabulary does come about through the appearance of a pair of homonyms. Actually, the appearance of homonyms is not a means of creating new words; it is the final result of a long and laborious process of sense-develop­ment. Furthermore, there are no patterns after which homo­nyms can be made in the language. Finally, diverging sense- development results in a semantic isolation of two or more meanings of award, whereas the process of word-formation proper is characterized by a certain semantic connection between the new word and its component parts. For these reasons diverging sense-development leading to the appear­ance of two or more homonyms should be regarded as a spe­cific channel through which the vocabulary of a language is replenished with new words and should not be treated on a par with the processes of word-formation, such as affixa­tion, conversion and composition.
As a subject of study, word-formation is that branch of Lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language In this case the English language, builds new words. It is self-evident that word-formation can deal only with words which are analyzable both structurally and semantically. The study of the simple word has no place in it. Therefore, writer, displease, atom-free, etc, are relevant to word-formation, but to write, to please, atom, free are not. Like any other linguistic phenomenon word-formation may be studied from two angles-synchronically and diachronically. It is necessary to distinguish between these two approaches, for synchronically the linguist investigates the present-day system of the types of word-formation while diachronically he is concerned with the history of word- building. To illustrate the difference of approach we shall consider affixation. Synchronically a derived word is structurally and semantically more complex than a simple one, while diachronically it was formed from some other word. On the synchronic plane a derived word is regarded as having а more complex structure than its correlated simple word, regardless of the fact whether it was derived from a simple stem or not. There are cases in the history of the English language when a word structurally more complex served as the original element from which a simpler word was derived. Those are cases of the process called backformation (or back-derivation), cf. beggar – to beg; editor – to edit; chauffeur – to chauff, and some others. The fact that historically the verbs to beg, to edit, etc, were derived from the correspond­ing agent-nouns is of no synchronous relevance. For the pres­ent-day speaker no such relationship exists, therefore they are all simple words in Modern English.
While analysing and describing word-formation synchronically it is not enough to extract the relevant structural elements from a word, describe its structure in terms of morphemes and allomorphs and determine the type of word- formation; it is absolutely necessary to determine the position of the constituents within the structural system of the lan­guage as a whole. Productivity of a derivative type therefore cannot be overlooked in this description.
Some of the ways of forming words in present-day English can be resorted to for the creation of new words whenever occasion demands-these are called productive ways of form­ing words; other ways of forming words cannot now produce new words, and these are commonly termed non-productive or unproductive. For instance, affixation has been a pro­ductive way of forming words ever since the Old English period, cf. old English fiscere and modern English striker and steamer. On the other hand, sound-interchange must have been at one time a word-building means but in Modern English it cannot be used to coin new words. Actually, its function in Modern English is only to distinguish one word from another, e.g., a verb from a noun, as is the case with food – to feed, bloodу - to bleed, full - to fill, etc.
The delimitation between productive and non-productive ways and means of word-formation as stated above is not, however, accepted by all linguists without reserve. Some linguists consider it necessary to define the term "productiv­ity of a word-building means" more accurately. They hold the view that productive ways and means of word-formation are only those that can be used for the formation of an unlimited number of new words in the modern language, i.e. such means that "know no bounds" and easily form occasional words. This divergence of opinion is responsible, in partic­ular, for the difference in the lists of derivational affixes considered productive in various books on English Lexicology. The available linguistic literature on the subject cites various types and ways of forming words. Books dealing with the problems of word-formation in the Russian and the Uzbek languages, as well as some books on English Lexicology usually mention morphological, syntactic and semantic types of word-formation.
In conformity with the basic structural types of stems and words described above the following two types of word-for­mation may be distinguished: word-derivation and word-compo­sition (or compounding). Words created by word-derivation have only one primary stem and one derivational affix in terms of word-formation analysis, e.g. cleanness (from clean), to overestimate (from to estimate), chairmanship (from chair­man), waterproofness (from waterproof), openhandedness (from open-handed), etc. Some derived words have no affixes, because derivation is achieved through conversion, e.g. to paper (from paper), a fall (from to fall), etc. Words created by word-composition have at least two primary stems, e.g. coal-black, ice-cold, looking-glass, daydream, hotbed, speed­ometer, etc. Besides, there are words built by a simulta­neous application of composition and derivation (suffixation or conversion)-derivational compounds, e.g. long-legged, open-minded, a breakdown, etc.
The shortening of words stands apart from the above two-fold division of word-formation. It cannot be regarded as part of either word-derivation or word-composition for the simple reason that neither the root-morpheme nor the derivational affix can be singled out from the shortened word (cf. lab, exam, Euratom, V-day, etc.). Consequently, the shortening of words should be treated separately as a specific type of word-formation.
Within the types, further distinction may be made between ways of forming words. The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation, for instance, are affixation and conversion. The lexicalization of grammatical forms, sound and stress- interchange and some others are usually referred to as minor ways of forming words.
In describing the technique of word-formation it is im­portant to point out the means by which word-formation is effected. For instance, affixation is characterized by the use of suffixes and prefixes, some cases of compounding by the use of connecting elements, etc.
Another classification of the types of word-formation worked out by H. Marchand is also of interest. Proceeding from the distinction between complete motivation as found in such composites as rain-bow, do- er, un-do, etc, and partial motivation as exemplified by phonetic symbolism (cf. pish, pooh, crack) he considers two major groups: (1) words formed as grammatical syntagmas, i.e. combinations of full linguistic signs, and (2) words which are not grammatical syntagmas, i.e. which are composites not made up of full linguistic signs. To the first group belong Compounding, Prefixation, Deri­vation by a Zero Morphemes and Backderivation, to the second Expressive Symbolism, Blending, Clipping, Rime and Ablaut Gemination, Word-manufacturing. It is char­acteristic of both groups that a new coining is based on a synchronic relationship between morphemes.