Time in the Teachings of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi

‘ikveta di-meshiha
, all 
these distinctions and classifications have broken down: lofty souls may incarnate as 
common folk and highborn, educated people may possess lowly souls. In this state of 
confusion, which reflects the chaotic conditions that would mark the final stage of 
the exile according to the Mishnah,
84
people often worship inappropriately, as they 
do not conform to the mode of worship that is compatible with their social status and 
the root of their soul.
85
84
See note 78 above. 
85
See Aharon ha-Levi, 
Sha’arei ha-yihud
, Petah u-mevo she’arim, 5a-b. See also Tishby,
 
“Ha-
ra’ayon ha-meshihi,” 513. Tishby explains this passage in terms of the Hasidic tendency to renounce 
traditional class divisions within the Jewish community, and to follow the imperative of “In all thy 
ways acknowledge Him” [Prv 3:6]. Contrary to Tishby, I do not see this confusion as a positive state 
but rather as a negative aspect of the generation of the “footsteps of the Messiah” and as an example 
of the tribulations that precede the messianic advent. Although Rashaz certainly subscribed to the idea 
of knowing God in all His ways, he nevertheless divided his Hasidim into separate groups according 
to the roots of their soul and their social status, prescribing different paths of worship to different 
groups. This will be further discussed in the next chapter. See also T4, 26:142a, where the confusion 
of the present time is said to result in the scholars being left at the mercy of the ignoramuses who 
support them financially; while in the redeemed world this will be reversed and the ignoramuses will 

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139 
This is not to suggest that the generation of 
‘ikveta di-meshiha
is morally 
inferior to other generations; it is characterised by confusion, which does not 
necessarily reflect on its moral fibre. However, previous generations were 
unequivocally either righteous or wicked, because their souls were loftier and thus 
capable of the complete eradication of such evil as had contaminated them. As a 
result, there were none among them in whom good and evil were intermingled: those 
who wanted to worship God did so selflessly, and those who sinned must have been 
entirely wicked to have done so in the first place. By contrast, the souls of the 
present generation are of a lower stature, and much greater effort is required for them 
to eradicate the evil that resides within them.
86
This prompts Rashaz to raise the 
question of the mode of worship that is appropriate for this generation. In most cases 
he identifies it with the practical commandments, with the commandment of charity 
occupying pride of place.
87
Rashaz effectively re-evaluates the time of 
‘ikveta
di-
meshiha 
by defining the practical commandments as the main mode of worship for 
this time – a necessary and distinct part of the process of redemption. This may be 
seen as an elevation of the generation of 
‘ikveta
di-meshiha 
to a higher level than 
that of the generation of the Giving of the Torah.
88
In line the general tendency 
present in his teachings, Rashaz allows for the possibility that the lowest place to 
which humanity could fall may be re-evaluated: indeed, the generation of 
‘ikveta
di-
meshiha
has sunk to the lowest step of the 
sefirotic
ladder, but it also stands out for 
be sustained by what they receive from the scholars. Aharon ha-Levi too, in his book referred to 
above, sees in the confusion a challenge to be overcome rather than an opportunity, and he asks his 
readers to explore their own souls and to find their own appropriate mode of worship, which would 
correspond to the root of their soul rather than to their current status in the material world.
86
See TO 41a.
87
See T4, 9:114a,