Transformations in Translation

Basic Transformations in the Process of Translation
At the sentence level, the most common transformations every translator makes are 1) omission, 2) addition, 3) transposition, 4) change of grammatical forms, 5) loss compensation, 6) concretization, 7) generalization 8) antonymic translation, 9) meaning extension, 10) metonymic translation, 11) sentence integration, and 12) sentence fragmentation. These transformations are caused by differences in the grammar and vocabulary of the source language (SL) and target language (TL).
A few examples.
1. Omission. Summer rains in Florida may be violent, while they last. Летом во Флориде бывают сильные ливни. From the point of view of the Russian language, the clause "while they last" is redundant and would make the Russian sentence sound very unnatural if it were to be translated.
2. Addition. The policeman waved me on. - Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая что я могу проезжать. Or: ''Полицейский рукой просигналил (показал), что я могу проезжать. The compact English phrase "to wave on" has no compact equivalent in Russian.
3. Transposition. Transposition involves changing the order of words in the target text (TT) as compared to the Source text (ST). Typically, an English sentence has a "subject+predicate+object+adverbial adjunct+place+time" word order: A delegation of Moscow State University students arrived in Gainesville yesterday. Вчеpa в Гейнзвиль прибыла группа студентов из Московского государственного университета. A typical Russian sentence would generally have a reverse word order: time+place+predicate+subject+object+adverbial adjunct.
4. Change of grammatical forms. For example, in the Russian translation of Prime Minister Tony Blair was hit by a tomato, the original Passive Voice construction is changed to an Active Voice construction: ...в британского премьера попал помидор...
5. Loss-of-meaning compensation involves adding to or reinforcing a TT in one place to compensate for something that hasn't been translated in a different place in the ST: I ain't got no time for that kind of thing! - to compensate for the double negation in You ain't seen nothin' yet! an emphatic syntactic construction can be used in the Rus­sian translation - To ли еще будет!
6. Concretization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation: There were pictures on all the walls and there was a vase with flowers on the table. - На всех стенах комнаты висели картины, а на столе стояла ваза с цветами.
7. Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when pre­serving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation: She ordered a daiquiri. (= a sweet alcoholic drink made of rum and fruit juice) - Она заказала коктейль. Or. There used to be a drugstore (a Walgreens pharmacy) around here. I need to buy some soda water. - Здесь раньше был магазин. Мне надо купить газированной воды. In the latter example, translating drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy as аптека or аптека "Уолгринз " would not only be baffling to a Russian - because in Russia they do not sell газированную воду in аптеках - but it would also be unnecessary as for the purposes of communication магазин is just as good in this con­text. The more specific drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy is translated here by the more general term магазин.
8. Antonymic translation involves trans­lating a phrase or clause containing a negation using a phrase or clause that does not contain a negation or vice versa: I don't think you're right. - Я думаю, что вы не правы.
9. Meaning extension or sense development involves translating a cause by its effect or vice versa: You can't be serious. - Вы, должно быть, шутите. (Cause is translated by its effect: Since you can't be serious, it follows that you must be joking). In the above example, meaning extension is combined with an antonymic translation. Another example: He answered the phone. - Он поднял трубку. You can't speak on the phone unless you have lifted the receiver. The effect "answered" in the ST is translated by its cause "lifted the receiver" (="поднял трубку") in the ТТ.
10. Metonymic translation. A metonymic translation is similar to meaning extension. Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Moscow for the Russian government. Using a part for the whole, the whole for one of ifs parts, or one of two contiguous concepts for the other are typical metonymic figures of speech. E.g.: School broke up for the summer recess. - Занятия прекратились. Все ушли на летние каникулы. (Или: Начались летние каникулы.)
11. Sentence integration involves com­bining two or more sentences into one: Your presence isn't required. Nor is it desirable. - Ваше присутствие не требуется и даже нежелательно.
12. Sentence fragmentation involves split­ting one complex or compound sentence into two or more simpler sen­tences: People everywhere are confronted with the need to make deci­sions in the face of ignorance and this dilemma is growing. - Люди везде сталкиваются с необходимостью принятия решений при отсутствии достаточной информации. Эта проблема возникает все чаще и чаще. Both sentence integration and sentence fragmentation are prompted by considerations of text cohesion and coherence. Cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and sentences in a text. Coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. Both concern the ways stretches of language are connected to each other. In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to each other by virtue of lexical and grammatical dependencies. In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning dependencies as perceived by language users.