United states securities and exchange commission

2022
Change
2021
Change
2020
Research and development
$ 
26,251 
20 % $ 
21,914 
17 % $ 
18,752 
Percentage of total net sales
7% 
6% 
7% 
Selling, general and administrative
$ 
25,094 
14 % $ 
21,973 
10 % $ 
19,916 
Percentage of total net sales
6% 
6% 
7% 
Total operating expenses
$ 
51,345 
17 % $ 
43,887 
13 % $ 
38,668 
Percentage of total net sales
13% 
12% 
14% 
Research and Development
The year-over-year growth in R&D expense in 2022 was driven primarily by increases in headcount-related expenses and 
engineering program costs.
Selling, General and Administrative
The year-over-year growth in selling, general and administrative expense in 2022 was driven primarily by increases in 
headcount-related expenses, advertising and professional services.
Apple Inc. | 2022 Form 10-K | 23

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Other Income/(Expense), Net
Other income/(expense), net (“OI&E”) for 2022, 2021 and 2020 was as follows (dollars in millions):
2022
Change
2021
Change
2020
Interest and dividend income
$ 
2,825 
$ 
2,843 
$ 
3,763 
Interest expense
(2,931) 
(2,645) 
(2,873) 
Other income/(expense), net
(228) 
60 
(87) 
Total other income/(expense), net
$ 
(334) 
(229) % $ 
258 
(68) % $ 
803 
The decrease in OI&E during 2022 compared to 2021 was due primarily to higher realized losses on debt securities, unfavorable 
fair value adjustments on equity securities and higher interest expense, partially offset by higher foreign exchange gains.