4.e. As regards negationism, there is only legislation in reference to National
Socialism. The Austrian Constitutional Court declared that uncompromis-
ing rejection of National Socialism was a fundamental characteristic of the
Austrian Republic after the Second World War.
173
This legislation is based on
the Austrian State Treaty of 1955 and the Verbotsgesetz of 1947. Section 3h
of the Verbotsgesetz prohibits qualified public denial, considerable belittlement,
172
.
Section 166 of the German Penal Code.
173
.
Collection of Decisions of the Constitutional Court 10.705/1985.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
238
endorsement or the attempt to justify national socialist genocide or other national
socialist crimes against humanity.
In contrast to this legislation, denial or belittlement of other crimes against
humanity is not prohibited. Possibly, Section 283 of the Penal Code might be
applied to such cases.
5. According to the case law of Austrian courts, freedom of expression and
freedom of art have no unlimited scope. Limits consist of “immanent bounds”
and bounds arising from the effect of other fundamental rights. In case law, Sec-
tion 188 of the Penal Code constitutes a necessary condition for efficient use of
freedom of religion (see 1); for this reason courts have not yet denied the appli-
cation of this provision to freedom of expression or freedom of art.
174
In the event of a conflict between two fundamental rights, one comes to a deci-
sion after weighing up the two different aims; to this end the wording of Sec-
tion 188 of the Penal Code leaves sufficient space for weighing up.
The most important cases in which religious feelings played a crucial role are
the following:
1. The film Das Gespenst, Supreme Court – 1984:
The movie Das Gespenst shows Jesus Christ after having descended from the
cross as a drunken and bawling derelict having sexual contact with the matron
of a convent; also he scoffs at his own acts without still bearing them in mind.
Both the court of first impression as well as the court of appeal considered the
movie’s tenor disparaging religious precepts in the sense of Section 188 of
the Penal Code. The court of appeal argued that one reaches a fundamental
right’s immanent bounds once the regular and tolerance-based human interac-
tion appears violated. The Supreme Court did not decide on the merits due to
previous procedural mistakes. Notwithstanding, doctrine has recognised in the
assertions of the Supreme Court that it approves the way of tackling the conflict
between two fundamental rights; and that it advances the view that freedom of
art shall not protect the disparaging of religious precepts in a repeated and sus-
tained fashion in pursuance to Section 188 of the Penal Code.
2. The film Das Liebeskonzil, Court of Appeal (Innsbruck) – 1987:
A similar case concerns the film Das Liebeskonzil, planned to be shown in a cin-
ema in Innsbruck, the capital of the province of Tyrol, a case which reached the
European Court of Human Rights. God the Father is showed as “senile, impo-
tent idiot, Christ as a cretin and Mary Mother of God as a wanton lady with a
corresponding manner of expression”. Courts held in 1987 that the showing of
the pictures is prohibited under Section 188 of the Penal Code because of the
174
.
In the Austrian constitutional system, by appealing to the Constitutional Court in order to open
a procedure under Article 140 Federal Constitutional Law, in which it pronounces whether the law
is unconstitutional.
Appendices
239
massive mockery of religious feelings. It was crucial that a predominant major-
ity of average believers would consider the film disparaging and degrading.
The European Court of Human Rights did not find a violation of Article 10 of
the Convention in the seizure and forfeiture of the film either. These measures
interfered with the right of freedom of expression but were, however, aimed at
the protection of the “rights of others” and necessary because these expressions
were “gratuitously offensive to others and thus an infringement of their rights,
and which therefore do not contribute to any form of public debate capable of
furthering progress in human affairs”. In weighing up the different interests under
articles 9 and 10 of the ECHR, the Court had regard to the fact that the Roman
Catholic religion was the religion of the overwhelming majority of Tyroleans.
Both criminal proceedings, concerning Das Gespenst and Das Liebeskonzil,
were conducted as so-called independent procedures not directed towards the
conviction of an individual but aimed at the forfeiture of the film.
The film Das Liebeskonzil is based on a theatre play from 1894. Theatre per-
formances of this original play took place in Vienna in 1991 and Innsbruck in
1992. Whereas in Vienna the authorities took no action whatsoever, the authori-
ties in Innsbruck discontinued proceedings after preliminary investigations.
3. The comic strip The Life of Jesus – 2002:
A younger example is the comic strip of Gerhard Haderer who portrayed Jesus
Christ, in his book The Life of Jesus,
175
as continuously intoxicated as a result of
consuming frankincense, which turns him into a sweet-tempered dreamer deriv-
ing his divine inspiration from drugs and working wonders rather at random.
The apostles exploit the harmless man in order to benefit themselves. Unlike the
previous examples the public prosecutor neither opened proceedings pursuant
to the Media Act nor indicted the author.
So far there has not been any conviction pursuant to section 188 of the Penal Code.
4. Graffiti, national socialism and racism:
A decision of the Supreme Court dealing with the objective characteristics of
Section 283 of the Penal Code is not directly connected to religious hatred.
The Court did not decide on the merits, but it held that the graffiti on a publicly
located building in the shape of a swastika, SS-runes and the words “hatred”
and “Turks out” may be prohibited under Section 283.
176
5. Muslim preacher and incitement to religious hatred:
A current case (the public prosecutor is reviewing the facts) matches more pre-
cisely the question: allegedly, the fatwas (Islamic legal opinions) of a Muslim
175
.
Das Leben des Jesus.
176
.
A crucial question was whether the perpetrator could be convicted despite a damage-to-prop-
erty conviction.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
240
preacher of a Viennese mosque contain elements that possibly conflict with Sec-
tion 283 of the Penal Code. However, there is no precise information about the
outcome of the investigation at the moment.
6. The distinctions play a role neither in case law nor in leading doctrine
because the penal provisions do not use these terms.
7. The intention of the perpetrator does not play a specific role; if an offence
does not provide for anything else, the law prohibits merely intentional
acts/omissions. Since there are no offences of negligent disparaging of reli-
gious precepts or negligent incitement, the perpetrator’s guilt presupposes his
intent. In other words, the perpetrator must consider the realisation of the facts at
least possible and accept this realisation (conditional intent). In the case of Sec-
tion 283 of the Penal Code the intention refers to the act itself (e.g. prompting
or goading), the publicity and the possible effect of endangering public order.
This applies specifically to Section 188 of the Penal Code; the perpetrator’s
intent refers on the one hand to the disparaging or mocking of certain persons,
things or institutions and on the other hand to the manner capable of giving rise
to a justified annoyance, while there is no necessity of intention as to the blas-
phemy itself. Whether the perpetrator is willing to act against God or a church
does not play any role.
The foreseeability of certain potential effects is an element of the offences: the
act is criminal if it is capable of giving rise to a justified annoyance or endanger-
ing public order. Whether the annoyance/disorder occurs does not play a role.
The intent of the perpetrator has to comprehend this ability.
Both, intention and foreseen and accepted effects, are elements of the offence
and are therefore not more and not less than two preconditions for the guilt and
the conviction. The Penal Law provides some grounds of aggravation, among
which are racist, xenophobic or other particularly condemnable motives of the
perpetrator, influencing the sentence. Insofar as such motives are inherent in the
formulation of the relevant offences, this ground of aggravation must not have
an impact on the sentence.
8. When review of the facts gives rise to the assumption that someone has com-
mitted a crime and that a conviction appears more likely than an acquittal, the
public prosecutor is obliged to indict the person concerned.
177
Hence, he has to
assess the facts, the legislation and the case law. This procedure is not a discre-
tionary decision.
Within the Austrian constitutional system the public prosecutor is an adminis-
trative agency, so there is supervision in the fact that the Minister of Justice
may give directives. There are neither appeals nor other remedies against
non-prosecution.
177
.
Or to open a “diversional procedure” pursuant to Section 90a of the Penal Procedure Law.
Appendices
241
9. No contribution whatsoever by the victims is required.
10. The only recent example of incitement to religious hatred which aroused a
lot of public indignation was The Life of Jesus in 2002. Mr Haderer, the author,
was not indicted because the public prosecutor found that he had not commit-
ted a crime by writing his book. Freedom of speech played no (obvious) role
because the public prosecutor has only to assess the likeliness of a conviction;
irrespective of the case law weighing up freedom of speech and freedom of reli-
gion, which has to be taken into account, freedom of speech is not relevant at
this stage of the proceedings.
11. The recent attitude of the press refers (for lack of national cases) to foreign
events such as, for instance, the conflict on the Danish cartoon. In this mat-
ter, reports have been neutral whereas comments have referred to freedom of
expression on the one hand and respect for religious feelings on the other hand.
The tenor was mainly the necessity in a secular society to respect the freedom
of expression, including the right to produce cartoons. This freedom must exist
in a legal and a de facto way; for this reason the press should not shy at any
publications due to possible implications. Notwithstanding, most newspapers
did not reprint the Danish cartoons so as not to intensify the debate or to draw
it to Austria.
The public discussion on the occasion of The Life of Jesus (see 5) was more lurid.
The book in question with cartoons was subject to a discussion with intense
argument on both sides in all the media. The Archbishop of Vienna commented
on the pictures in an important daily paper, provoking a reply from the author.
Other comments were dependent on the political alignment of the respective
medium or the respective commentator.
Belgium
178
1. It seems important to associate with religious insults some offences protecting
the peaceful practice of religious rituals. These are the main provisions of the
Belgian Criminal Code in this field.
Article 142: Anyone who uses violence or threats either to force one or more
persons to practise a religion, attend religious services, celebrate particular reli-
gious festivals, observe particular days of rest – and hence open or close their
shops or workshops – or perform or cease certain types of work, or to prevent
one or more persons from doing so, shall be subject to a prison sentence of
eight days to two months and a 26- to 200-franc fine.
Article 143: Anyone who impedes, delays or interrupts an act of worship per-
formed in a place of worship or a place ordinarily used for worship, or as part
of a public religious ceremony, by creating disturbance or disorder, shall be
178
.
Reply by Mr Louis-Léon Christians, Professor, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
242
subject to a prison sentence of eight days to three months and a 26- to 500 franc
fine.
Article 144: Anyone who insults a religious object by means of actions, words,
gestures or threats, whether in a place of worship or a place ordinarily used for
worship or during a public religious ceremony, shall be subject to a prison sen-
tence of 15 days to six months and a 26- to 500-franc fine.
Article 145: The same penalties shall apply to anyone who insults a minister of
religion, in the exercise of his or her ministry, by means of actions, words, ges-
tures or threats. Assaulting a minister of religion shall carry a prison sentence of
two months to two years and a 50- to 500-franc fine.
Article 146: Should such an assault occasion bloodshed, injury or illness, the
perpetrator shall be subject to a prison sentence of six months to five years and
a 100- to 1 000-franc fine.
2. The extension in 2003 of the previous racist hate-speech legislation to a
protection against religious discrimination and religious hate speech was very
controversial and difficult during the debate in Parliament. The main arguments
were the danger of religious extremisms and the democratic necessity for the
civil society to be able to use fighting words against these religious abuses (espe-
cially against Islam and “cults”). But finally, in order to respect the EU Directive
78/2000, the 2003 law has been actually extended to cover religious discrimi-
nation and hate. Since January 2007, a new bill has been under discussion in
Parliament to replace the 2003 law.
Sections 2 and 6 of the Anti-Discrimination Act of 25 February 2003, amending
the Act of 15 February 1993 on the Establishment of a Centre for Equal Oppor-
tunities and Combating Racism (Parliament has been debating a new Act since
January 2007: see below) provide inter alia as follows.
2.6: Harassment shall be held to be a form of discrimination where undesirable
behaviour related to the grounds for discrimination set forth in paragraph 1a
is intended to violate a person’s dignity and create an intimidating, hostile,
degrading, humiliating or offensive environment, or has the effect of doing so.
2.7: Any behaviour whereby another person is ordered to practise discrimina-
tion against a person, a group, a community or the members thereof, on one of
the grounds [set forth in paragraph 1], shall be held to be discrimination within
the meaning of this Act.
6.1: A prison sentence of one month to one year and a 50- to 1000-euro fine,
or one of these penalties only, shall be applicable to:
–
anyone who, in one of the circumstances set forth in Article 444 of the
Criminal Code, incites discrimination, hatred or violence towards a person,
a group, a community or the members thereof, on grounds of gender, sexual
Appendices
243
orientation, civil status, birth, wealth, age, religious or philosophical beliefs,
current or future state of health, a disability or a physical characteristic;
–
anyone who, in one of the circumstances set forth in Article 444 of the
Criminal Code, advertises his or her intention to practise discrimination,
hatred or violence towards a person, a group, a community or the mem-
bers thereof, on grounds of gender, sexual orientation, civil status, birth,
wealth, age, religious or philosophical beliefs, current or future state of
health, a disability or a physical characteristic.
Bill No. 2722 on Combating Certain Forms of Discrimination (tabled on
26 October 2006) attempted to define the scope of religious grounds and the
concept of hatred thus.
Scope of the religious ground: “In its aforementioned opinion of 11 July 2006,
the Council of State held that the ground of professing ‘any other opinion’, set
forth in Section II-81, could not be omitted from the list without an objective, rea-
sonable justification for doing so. It may be argued, however, that this reference
was unnecessary, bearing in mind that the concepts of religious or philosophical
beliefs and political beliefs are now interpreted very broadly under international
human rights law.”
Scope of the concept of hatred:
–
incitement to hatred or violence towards a person on account of one of the
protected grounds, in the circumstances set forth in Article 444 of the Crimi-
nal Code (= public arena), even where it does not concern the aspects cov-
ered in Section 5 of the Bill;
–
incitement to discrimination against or segregation of a group, a commu-
nity or the members thereof on account of one of the protected grounds, in
the circumstances set out in Article 444 of the Criminal Code, even where
it does not concern the aspects covered in Section 5 of the Bill;
–
incitement to hatred or violence towards a group, a community or the mem-
bers thereof on account of one of the protected grounds, in the circum-
stances set forth in Article 444 of the Criminal Code, even where it does
not concern the aspects covered in Section 5 of the Bill.
The Federal Centre for Equal Opportunities and Combating Racism – at
www.diversite.be – supplied a description of religious grounds. The Centre inter-
prets “religious or philosophical beliefs” to mean beliefs concerning the exist-
ence or otherwise of one or more deities. They also include philosophical beliefs
such as atheism, agnosticism and secularism. Philosophical beliefs unrelated to
issues surrounding the existence or otherwise of one or more deities are not cov-
ered by the Centre’s work.
3. In the Belgian Constitution, freedom of speech and freedom of religion are
protected by the same provision, Section 19: Freedom of religion, the freedom
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
244
to practise a religion in public and the freedom to express one’s opinions on
any subject shall be guaranteed, without prejudice to the punishment of offences
committed in exercise of these freedoms.
Press and media freedom is protected under Section 25. The press is free; cen-
sorship cannot be introduced; and authors, publishers and printers cannot be
required to obtain approval. Where the author is known and resident in Belgium,
the publisher, printer and distributor cannot be prosecuted.
4. There is no debate in Belgium in favour of a new offence of “religious insult”.
The bill now being discussed in Parliament would confirm some new offences
related to religious hatred and group hate speech.
The offence of negationism enacted in Belgian law in order to protect the histo-
ricity of the Jewish Shoah is often discussed as discriminatory, because of the
lack of protection for the historicity of the Armenian genocide.
5. The relevant case law is as follows:
− Court of Appeal of Ghent, 2 May 1988, judgment not published, about
some sexual perversity of Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary, no conviction of the
perpetrator.
− Court of Appeal of Liege, 28 November 2001, Journal des Tribunaux
(2002), p. 308, about some fighting words from the Raelian Movement
against the Catholic clergy, conviction of the perpetrator.
− Criminal Court of Brussels, 11 April 1991, JLMB – Revue de jurisprudence
de Liège, Mons et Bruxelles (1991), p. 804, about the expression “juif per-
sona non grata”, conviction as racial offence.
− Civil Court of Brussels, 25 July 2001, (2001), p. 1575, about some polemi-
cal accusations against the Raelian Movement, no conviction.
− Council of State, 28 August 2000, about the refusal by the Post Company to
distribute some discriminatory advertising, conviction as unlawful censure.
6. and 7. Insufficient data.
8. Prosecutions of these offences are at the discretion of the public prosecutor.
Criminal procedure enables also some kind of citation directe by victims for dif-
ferent types of offence.
9. Only common harassment offences exclusively depend on a complaint by
the victim.
10. Three recent public debates and attempt of prosecutions:
−
During an art exhibition Europalia Poland, a Catholic priest accepted a
display of some “artistic” photos in his church. These pictures (a naked
Virgin Mary etc.) offended some parishioners, but not the priest in charge
of the parish. These parishioners tried to stimulate a public prosecution.
Appendices
245
But, in review, they failed in their attempt because no church authorities
(the Bishop) confirmed a hypothesis of sacrilege (provided by the penal
code).
−
In another art exhibition, a large picture of a quasi-naked woman was
placed on the main entrance of an (ancient) church, just near a statue of the
Virgin Mary, and this provoked a large public debate, but no prosecutions.
−
In a public oration, a very well-known Oriental Catholic priest (revoked
previously by his bishop) affirmed that a true understanding of the Qur’an
(Koran) shows that Islam is more dangerous for Europe than Hitler himself.
A public prosecution for racial (and not religious) hatred has been opened.
11. One of the most influent and progressive French-speaking newspapers
decided in February 2006 not to publish the Danish cartoons. This was the edi-
torial comment on page 5 of Le Vif/L’Express (10 February 2006):
Continental Drift
Pencil strokes can be deadly, as the astonished Western world has discovered in
totting up the number of deaths already caused by the demonstrations in Lebanon
and Afghanistan. A few poor drawings of the prophet Mohammed, published in
Denmark more than four months ago now, are all that was needed to set ablaze
much of the Arab Muslim world. Public apologies have made no difference; anger
has spread like a raging pandemic, setting embassies alight, sacking a church and
tearing up co-operation agreements.
The violence of what we Westerners regard as an insane response must be unequiv-
ocally condemned by all those who reject obscurantism, terror and hate-fuelled rad-
icalism. The latter, it must be emphasised, are not confined to one side of the planet.
Although they are finding it more difficult to make themselves heard amid the cur-
rent commotion, there are Muslims in both Brussels and Beirut who reject such vio-
lence, calling for calm. This does not mean they themselves are any less offended
by the cartoons, which make a ludicrous connection between Islam and terrorism.
The West has been taken aback by both the demonstrators’ over-reaction and the
extent to which it has spread. In actual fact, the reasons for this anger are not
identical everywhere, and nor is its degree of sincerity. Some governments have
exploited the protests for purely political ends. Nor can Fatah’s electoral frustra-
tions in the Palestinian territories and the tension between Islamists and Christians
in Lebanon be overlooked as factors contributing to the radicalisation on the street.
In Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan, Europe has taken over the role of great Satan nor-
mally assigned to the United States. Yet in the European Union, which is home to
15 million Muslims, many of the latter have simply expressed their exasperation in
the face of an Islamophobia that caricatures them as bomb-layers and continually
condemns them to blanket rejection.
With its sacked consulates and calls to murder, the “Mohammed affair” evokes
the terrifying spectre of a “clash of civilisations”. Accepting the latter as inevitable
would be the worst possible attitude, prompting all sides to prepare for it mentally.
Yet it can hardly be denied that relations between the West and the Arab Muslim
world appear to be worse than ever. This time, the clamour is being caused not by
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
246
the marching armies led by Bush senior or junior, but simply by a few little draw-
ings. This illustrates the widening gulf between the two worlds: it is as if they were
being dragged apart by a slow continental drift. When it comes to religious expres-
sion, media irreverence, the image culture and the role of satire, de-Christianised
Europe is now utterly at odds with those nations that are (re-)Islamised right to the
very core of the state.
How can they be persuaded to accept, over there, that cartoonists in a free press
exercise a salutary occupation, guarding against the homogenisation of thought?
Cartoonists do not like excessive politeness. Yet they share two responsibilities with
journalists, which are not necessarily entirely compatible. On the one hand, they
must uphold freedom of expression by exercising it, since it will be worn down
only if it is not used. On the other hand, they must respect people and their beliefs,
race and dignity. The latter responsibility is not simply the coward’s version of the
former. Here too, it may take courage to refrain from howling with the pack or to
avoid easy effect. From this perspective, portraying Mohammed with a bomb in
his turban is clearly a faux pas. It is one thing to scoff at the statements, decisions
or weaknesses of dignitaries, even religious dignitaries. It is quite another to stig-
matise a religion by attacking its foundations. This is the same kind of despicable
generalisation used to caricature the Jews in the past and immigrants today, fuelling
anti-Semitism and xenophobia. In a strange reversal, however, the Danish cartoon-
ists and subsequently many other newspapers have merely strengthened that which
they sought to weaken. Freedom of the press is scoring fewer points here than
freedom-busting religious fundamentalism.
Le Vif/L’Express has therefore opted not to publish the impugned drawings, and will
not do so. Nevertheless, its visceral attachment to freedom of opinion, including the
right to irreverence, remains intact. In order to emphasise this, we have specially
invited seven cartoonists from other Belgian media to address various topics in this
issue. Pencils are essential, provided they are used only to make us laugh or think.
Jean-François Dumont
The same journal regularly published all kinds of religious satirical cartoons,
without any public discussion.
Denmark
179
Dostları ilə paylaş: |