6. The distinction between blasphemy, religious insult and incitement to religious
– or racial – hatred does play a role in the case law, for these three punishable
offences are regulated in distinct provisions of the Penal Code, though the provi-
sion on blasphemy currently is de facto a dead letter. In some cases both (reli-
gious) discriminatory insult and incitement to hatred or discrimination have been
prosecuted in combination, but they have always been dealt with separately.
The distinction does not seem to be an issue in legal doctrine.
7. With regard to the blasphemy clause (Article 147 PC), the intention of the
perpetrator plays a minor role in the formulation of the legal prohibition, but a
major role in the prospect of a conviction. The foreseeability of the discrimina-
tory effects, on the contrary, seems to follow from the text of the provision con-
cerned. Despite this fact, it was given a very narrow interpretation in the Donkey
case (see above, under point 5).
At first sight, things seem less complicated in regard to the law on religious
(discriminatory) insult and incitement to hatred or discrimination. Intent is a
requirement in both descriptions of the offence. However, in order to be quali-
fied as an offender, the intentions of the suspect play an important role. Here
the applicable freedom-of-speech clauses come into play (see point 3). If the
perpetrator intends to give a scientific (biological) explanation for certain dif-
ferences between races, he may be exculpated. Likewise, exculpation may fol-
low in the case of a comedian who intends to expose abuses or to point out
social injustices of which followers of a certain religion would make themselves
241. District Court Rotterdam 10-03-2006, joint cases 10/000322-04, 10/000328-04,
10/000396-04, 10/000393-04, 10/000323-04, 10/000395-04 (Hofstad group).
242. In the second Papendrecht case the claim was partly admissible, but not in respect of the
137.e PC offence.
Appendices
287
guilty.
243
The context in which something is said or done is vitally important for
the prospect of conviction.
244
8. Dutch criminal law acknowledges the right to exercise prosecutorial discre-
tion: it is up to the Public Prosecution Service to decide whether to prosecute or
not if offences of blasphemy, religious insult or incitement to religious hatred have
been committed. The Public Prosecution Service is not a government department.
Together with the courts, it forms what is known as the judiciary, the authority
responsible for the administration of justice. The Minister of Justice carries politi-
cal responsibility for the department’s conduct and performance and he may be
called upon to render account to both Houses of Parliament. The minister super-
vises general policy on investigation and prosecution. Only rarely does he inter-
vene in individual cases, though he may issue instructions to the department’s
officers after consulting the Board of Procureurs-General.
There is a right to appeal to the Court of Appeal against non-prosecution, laid
down in Article 12 of the Criminal Procedure Code.
245
9. A complaint, in the sense of reporting an offence, by the victim(s) is certainly
helpful, but prosecution of blasphemous acts et cetera does not depend on such
complaints. If the complaint merely relates to religion, it is in all practical fact
bound to fail. The case law discussed under point 5 shows that the prosecution
has a much stronger case when the victim has been discriminated against in
respect of race, too.
10. The most controversial cases concerning the discrimination clauses have to
do with alleged discrimination against homosexuals in which freedom of reli-
gion was invoked as a ground for the exclusion of liability of punishment. These
cases have been discussed above and they are not of direct relevance to this
questionnaire, since they do not directly concern religious insult and incitement
to religious hatred.
An important recent case deserves to be mentioned in this respect. In 2003,
the former Member of Parliament Ayaan Hiri Ali said in a national newspa-
per, among other things, that Islam had “in certain respects” to be regarded as
“retarded” and the prophet Muhammad as a “pervert”. The public prosecutor
decided not to prosecute, although 600 complaints had been made.
Later on, Hirsi Ali and the above-mentioned film maker Van Gogh made the film
Submission. The latter was murdered and the former was put under strict security
243
.
C.P.M. Cleiren et alii (eds), Strafrecht: tekst en commentaar: de tekst van het Wetboek van
Strafrecht en enkele aanverwante wetten voorzien van commentaar (‘Criminal law: text and com-
mentary; the text of the Criminal Code and some related laws with commentary’), Deventer: Kluwer
2004, pp. 704-5.
244
.
See Court of Cassation 09-01-2001, case 00945/99, 2001, 203 (van Dijk).
245
.
See, for instance, the appeal brought by the List Pim Fortuyn after non-prosecution of an alleged
Article 137d PC offence (though not on account of race or religion): Court of Appeal Den Haag
19-05-2003, case 02075.K10, 2003, 382.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
288
surveillance. Some members of the public were evidently trying to take the law
into their own hands. It was then that the debate discussed above (under point 3)
started. And it is still going on.
11. The Dutch press acts in a rather independent way. In the Van Gogh saga,
reporters may be said to have held back a bit. The crime concerned was a very
serious offence against public order indeed. After the tragic events had taken
place, many people – politicians and members of the public alike – felt public
order was in acute danger. By no means, though, has this sentiment stood in
the way of a broad and balanced discussion in the media and elsewhere of the
question whether legislation in this field needed to be changed or even partly
abolished.
Poland
246
1. The relevant legislation is found in the Criminal Code and the Broadcasting
Act.
Criminal Code in the part on “Offences against freedom of conscience and
religion”
Article 194
Whoever restricts another person from exercising the rights vested in the latter
because of this person’s affiliation to a certain faith or their religious indifference
shall be subject to a fine, the penalty of restriction of liberty or the penalty of
deprivation of liberty for up to two years.
Article 195
paragraph 1: Whoever maliciously interferes with a public performance of a
religious ceremony of a church or another religious association with regulated
legal status shall be subject to a fine, the penalty of restriction of liberty or the
penalty of deprivation of liberty for up to two years.
paragraph 2: The same punishment shall be imposed on anyone who mali-
ciously interferes with a funeral, mourning ceremonies or rites.
Article 196
Anyone found guilty of offending religious feelings by public calumny of an
object or place of worship is liable to a fine, restriction of liberty or a maximum
two-year prison sentence.
246
.
Reply by Ms Hanna Suchocka, Member of the Venice Commission, Poland.
Appendices
289
Broadcasting Act of 29 December 1992
Article 18, paragraph 2, states that programmes or other broadcasts shall
respect the religious beliefs of the public and especially the Christian system of
values.
1.a,b,c. The abovementioned legislation points to the recognition by Polish leg-
islators not only of freedom of speech, but also of the right to protection of the
religious aspect of individuals’ rights. The category of freedom of conscience
and confession is based on the principles of international human rights law. The
shape of the legal provisions is dependent on our historical tradition: for many
centuries Poland was a multi-religious state with a very strong role for the Catho-
lic Church.
2. The Polish Constitution contains general provisions that can be seen as a
basis for the prohibition of religious hatred.
Article 13 of the Polish Constitution – Political pluralism
Political parties and other organisations whose programmes are based upon
totalitarian methods and the modes of activity of nazism, fascism and com-
munism, as well as those whose programmes or activities sanction racial or
national hatred, … shall be forbidden.
Article 35 of the Polish Constitution – Identity of national
and ethnic minorities
The Republic of Poland shall secure to Polish citizens belonging to national or
ethnic minorities the freedom to maintain and develop their own language, to
maintain customs and traditions and to develop their own culture. National and
ethnic minorities shall have the right to establish educational and cultural institu-
tions, and institutions designed to protect religious identity, and to participate in
the resolution of matters connected with their cultural identity.
The Polish Criminal Code contains these specific provisions:
Article 256 – Promotion of fascism or other totalitarian system.
An offence is committed by anyone who promotes fascist or other totalitarian
systems of state or incites hatred based on national, ethnic, race or religious dif-
ferences or for reason of lack of any religious denomination. Subject to a fine,
the penalty of restriction of liberty or the penalty of deprivation of liberty for up
to two years.
Article 257 – Publicly insulting a group or individual for national, ethnic
or racial reasons
An offence is committed by anyone who publicly insults a group within the popu-
lation or a particular person because of his national, ethnic, race or religious
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
290
affiliation or because of his lack of any religious denomination or for these rea-
sons breaches the personal inviolability of another individual. Imprisonment for
up to three years.
Article 119 – Use of violence or threat because of national, ethnic, racial
or religious hatred
An offence is committed by anyone who uses violence or makes unlawful threats
towards a group of persons or a particular individual because of their national,
ethnic, political or religious affiliation, or because of their lack of religious
beliefs. Imprisonment for between three months and five years.
Article 118 – Homicide or harm because of national, ethnic, racial
or religious hatred
An offence is committed by anyone who acts with intent to destroy in full or in
part any ethnic, racial, political or religious group, or a group with a different
perspective on life, commits homicide or causes a serious detriment to the health
of a person belonging to such a group. Penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a
minimum term of 12 years, the penalty of deprivation of liberty for 25 years or
the penalty of deprivation of liberty for life.
2.a,b,c. The existence of the aforementioned legal provisions can be to some
extent explained on the basis of different factors:
– the recognition by Polish legislators not only of the freedom of speech, but also
of the right to protection of the religious aspect of individuals’ rights,
– history (the Second World War, the Holocaust, communism),
– the category of freedom of conscience and confession, and protection from
any form of attack caused by religious beliefs, is based on the principles of inter-
national human rights law,
– the protected values of religious feelings and beliefs are of great importance
for the Catholic Church (over 90% of Polish society belongs to the Catholic
Church).
3. Generally we won’t find any specific freedom-of-speech clause in the above-
mentioned provisions. However, such freedom-of-speech provisions do exist in
the Polish legal system. The main correlation between those two kinds of pro-
visions is based on the conviction that the freedom of one person is limited by
the freedom of other person, in this specific situation understood as a limitation
to blasphemy or religious insult. Not only freedom of speech, but also religious
feelings and beliefs are in the Polish legal system a value protected by law.
The main controversy appears to be caused by the interpretation of Article 196
of the Polish Criminal Code. The religious feelings of the different members of
one specific Church or confession are very diverse. The question is: whose level
Appendices
291
of religious sensibility should we treat as the average level – the sensibility of a
group of fundamentalist or tolerant members?
Another controversy relates to the limit between freedom of speech (including
the criticism of religious rules, dogmas, ways of acting) and insulting religious
feelings. Lech Gardocki, President of the Supreme Court, opts for allowing an
unrestricted range of substantial analysis and criticism. However, he underlines
the existence of limits of forms in which the analysis and criticism are presented.
Those forms (of an action or a statement) must have the features of an insult. The
estimation, if the form is an insult, must appeal to the majority of public opinion’s
views in that aspect.
4. The existing legislation concerning the above-mentioned regulations seems
to be mostly adequate and appropriate. However, according to the European
Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) General Policy Recommen-
dation No. 7 on national legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination,
adopted by the ECRI on 13 December 2002, the law should penalise, inter alia,
public dissemination or public distribution, or the production or storage aimed at
public dissemination or public distribution, with a racist aim, of written, pictorial
or other material containing manifestations such as:
– public incitement to violence, hatred or discrimination, public insults and defa-
mation or threats against a person or a grouping of persons on the grounds of
their race, colour, language, religion, nationality, or national or ethnic origin;
– public expression, with a racist aim, of an ideology which claims the superior-
ity of, or which depreciates or denigrates, a grouping of persons on the grounds
of their race, colour, language, religion, nationality, or national or ethnic origin;
– public denial, trivialisation, justification or condoning, with a racist aim, of
crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes.
Another postulate concerns the change in the legal interpretation of Article 257
of the Polish Criminal Code. The postulated interpretation shall assure that not
only a member of insulted group, but also every Polish citizen could feel insulted
by hate speech contents and could bring an action at law.
The third element concerns the need of ratification by Poland of the Additional
Protocol to the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the
criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through
computer systems, signed by Poland on 21 July 2003.
The general conclusion indicates that the most important aspect of the exist-
ing legislation (especially articles 256 and 257 of the Criminal Code) is a
great need of more effective application and exercise of the provisions already
existing.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
292
5. The most important cases of alleged blasphemy, religious insult and/or incite-
ment to religious hatred in Poland that aroused a lot of public indignation and
debate and were prosecuted or convicted were these.
1. Nieznalska case
In December 2001, members of the League of Polish Families attacked the Polish
artist Nieznalska verbally in the Gdańsk venue where her ‘Passion’ installation
was exhibited. The work, an exploration of masculinity and suffering, consisted
of a video close-up of the face of an exercising bodybuilder together with a
cross on which a photograph of male genitalia had been placed. Coupling the
cross with the genitalia was regarded as a violation of this provision of Arti-
cle 196 of the Criminal Code. In July 2003, the Provincial Court in Gdańsk
found Nieznalska guilty of “offending religious feelings,” a violation of the Art-
icle 196 ban on blasphemy. The court sentenced her to a half-year “restriction
of freedom” and ordered her to do community work and pay all trial expenses.
The gallery was closed as a punishment. On 28 April 2004 the District Court in
Gdańsk quashed the previous judgment, in particular on the grounds of crimi-
nal procedural violations: limitation to the right to defence, and lack of a proper
explanation and reasons for the judgment.
2. Bubel case
Leszek Bubel is the owner of the Goldpol company, a publisher of hundreds of
anti-Semitic publications: magazines and books. For many years he had been
accused of anti-Semitism and the crime described in Article 257 of the Polish
Criminal Code. However, efforts to prosecute and convict him had brought no
positive result. On 27 July 2005 in the Provincial Court of Warszawa Praga, a
lawsuit against Leszek Bubel was started. He was accused of committing a crime
under Article 257: publicly insulting a group of people or an individual person
by reason of their national, ethnic or racial affiliation. The statements made
by Bubel included “their brains have been circumcised”, of students who sued
the priest Jankowski, and “the Jewish seed is deceitful”. On 28 October 2005
the Court stated it had no doubts that Leszek Bubel had exceeded the limits of
freedom of speech. However, the Court refrained from inflicting deprivation of
liberty, which the prosecutor demanded. Leszek Bubel was sentenced to a pecu-
niary penalty. On 28 August 2006 the District Prosecutor from Białystok laid a
charge against Bubel. He was accused of committing a crime of publicly insult-
ing a group of people or an individual person by reason of their national, eth-
nic or racial affiliation. On 16 November 2006, ten famous Polish intellectuals,
including Władysław Bartoszewski, Jacek Bocheński, Kazimierz Kutz, Janina
Ochojska, Adam Szostkiewicz and Paweł Śpiewak, sued Leszek Bubel. They
claimed that Bubel insulted them with his anti-Semitic statements. On 7 Decem-
ber 2006 Leszek Bubel was detained by the ABW (Internal Security Agency).
Appendices
293
Detention was connected with Bubel’s case in Białystok. Bubel was taken to a
mental hospital in Tworki in order to undergo mental examination.
The procedural status of the victim is described in the Code of Criminal Proce-
dure. The victim can join the procedure as an subsidiary prosecutor, as below.
Article 53
In cases of indictable offences, the injured person may participate in the judicial
proceedings as a party thereto, by assuming the role of subsidiary prosecutor,
alongside the public prosecutor or instead of him.
Article 54
paragraph 1. If the indictment has been filed by the public prosecutor, the injured
person may, before the commencement of the judicial examination in the main
trial, file a statement in writing of his intention to act as subsidiary prosecutor.
paragraph 2. The public prosecutor’s withdrawal of the indictment shall not
deprive a subsidiary prosecutor of his rights.
Article 57
paragraph 1. In the event that the subsidiary prosecutor waives his rights he
shall not be allowed to re-enter the proceedings.
paragraph 2. In a case where the public prosecutor does not participate,
the court notifies the state prosecutor of the withdrawal of the indictment by
the subsidiary prosecutor. Failure to file an indictment by the state prosecutor
within 14 days of receiving such notification will result in discontinuance of the
proceedings.
6. The distinction between the concepts mentioned is decisive for categorising
the particular crime. Crimes of religious insult belong to Chapter XXIV of the
Polish Criminal Code: Offences against freedom of conscience and religion
(confession). Incitement to religious or racial hatred is included in Chapter XXXII:
Offences against public order. It is also critical for the possible kind of punish-
ment. It should be noted that prosecution of “defamation”, in the meaning of
Article 212 of the Polish Criminal Code, occurs upon a private charge. It cannot
be decidedly stated that, for example, crimes under Article 257 have been pros-
ecuted and sentenced more seldom than crimes under Article 196. However, it
is to be observed that the pressure of public opinion is stronger in cases of blas-
phemy and religious insult.
7. Article 196 of the Polish Criminal Code describes a material crime, which
appears in the form of insulting the religious feelings of at least two persons.
The action/statement of a perpetrator must be of a public nature. The insult can
be expressed by words or action showing disregard, abuse and derision with
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
294
an intention of insulting religious feelings of other people. This crime can be
committed only intentionally.
A crime under Article 256 (“Promotion of fascism or other totalitarian system”)
has also, in the leading opinion of legal doctrine, the character of an inten-
tional crime, which can be committed only when a perpetrator acts with a direct
intention. The essence of the direct intention is the perpetrator’s will to commit a
crime. The perpetrator should be aware of a crime and he should want to fulfil
the hallmarks of a crime.
Article 257 of the Criminal Code (“Publicly insulting a group of people or an
individual person by reason of their national, ethnic or racial affiliation”) also
has the character of an intentional crime. However (though the views on this
question differ), in a case of defamation on the ground of national, ethnic, race
or religious affiliation or because of the lack of any religious denomination, a
perpetrator can act with a direct intention as well as with an indirect intention.
According to Article 9 of the Criminal Code, an indirect intention takes place
when a perpetrator, foreseeing a possibility of committing a crime, agrees with
it. As far as an indirect intention is concerned, the intention of the perpetrator
does not include the result being a crime. It is a matter of indifference to the per-
petrator whether the result is a crime or not, because he accepts both of those
possibilities. An example given in some commentaries states that an indirect
intention can take place when, for instance, a perpetrator, giving a speech in
public, uses words that he can suppose to be insulting for other people.
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