Theoretical Grammar

The phone was ringing and ringing They were laughing and singing

Complication Contamination

(a synt. unit becomes complicated) (two parts of the sentence are joined
I have seen it – I could have seen it together – e.g. double predicate)
The moon rose red

Replacement – the use of the words that have a generalized meaning: one, do, etc, I’d like to take this one.

Representation – a part of the syntactic unit represents the whole syntactic unit: Would you like to come along? I’d love to.
Ellipsis – Where are you going? To the movies.

The external syntactic processes are:

Extension - a nice dress – a nice cotton dress.

Ajoinment - the use of specifying words, most often particles: He did it – Only he did it.

Enclosure – inserting modal words and other discourse markers: after all, anyway, naturally, etc.

4. 
   The utterance. Informative structure of the utterance.
   

The utterance as opposed to the sentence is the unit of speech. The

main categories of the utterance from the point of view of its informative structure are considered to be the theme and the rheme. They are the main components of the Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) – actual division of the sentence (most language analysts stick to the term “sentence” but actually they mean “utterance”).
In English, there is a “standard” word order of Subject + Verb + Object: The cat ate the rat – here we have a standard structure (N1 + V + N2). However, there are numerous other ways in which the semantic content of the sentence can be expressed:

1. 
   The rat was eaten by the cat.
   
2. 
   It was the cat that ate the rat.
   
3. 
   It was the rat that the cat ate.
   
4. 
   What the cat did was ate the rat.
   
5. 
   The cat, it ate the rat.
   

Which of these options is actually selected by the writer or the speaker will depend on the context in which the utterance occurs and the importance of the information. One important consideration is whether the information has already been introduced before or it is assumed to be known to the reader or listener. Such information is referred to as given information or the theme. It contrasts with information which is introduced for the first time and which is known as new information or the rheme.
Informative structure of the utterance is one of the topics that still attract the attention of language analysts nowadays. It is well recognized that the rheme marking devices are:

1. 
   Position in the sentence. As a rule new information in English generally comes last: The cat ate the rat.
   
2. 
   Intonation.
   
3. 
   The use of the indefinite article. However, sometimes it is impossible (as in 1): A gentleman is waiting for you.
   
4. 
   The use of ‘there is’, ‘there are’. There is a cat in the room.
   
5. 
   The use of special devices, like ‘as for’, ‘but for’, etc.: As for him, I don’t know.
   
6. 
   Inverted word order: Here comes the sun.
   
7. 
   The use of emphatic constructions: It was the cat that ate the rat.
   

However, sometimes the most important information is not expressed formally: The cat ate the rat after all. The rheme here is ‘the rat’. At the same time there is very important information which is hidden or implicit: the cat was not supposed to do it, or – it was hard for the cat to catch the rat, or – the cat is a vegetarian (this hidden information will depend on the context or situation). In other words, we may say that this sentence contains two informative centres, or two rhemes – explicit and implicit.

5. 
   Functional typology of utterances.
   

Actional utterance: N + Vact. + Complement – actional predicate
Performative utterance: I + Vperf./Vsay – performative predicate
Characterizing utterance: N + Vbe + A/Q – characterizing predicate
(See the book by E.Morokhovskaya ‘Fundamentals of Theoretical English Grammar’, pp.254-268)