Z. M. Bobur nomidagi andijon davlat universiteti chet tillar fakulteti ingliz tili va adabiyoti kafedrasi

Historical survey of FL teaching in the world
Language teaching has been around and changing over the centuries. It is very interesting to look back at the history of FL. It serves us to get to know the different trends and choose the best way t to teach the FL.
The history of FL teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a FL officially. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of Greeks.
In Europe before the 16 century, much of the language teaching enclosed teaching Latin to priests. In the 16 and 17centuries. French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Mostly court members spoke French, and also it was a required language for travelers, traders and soldiers. French was greatly taught throughout this period, and a study of documents, textbooks, literature indicate that language teachers of that time were considering the same issues that are being considered today. These contained issues about practice versus learning rules and formal study versus informal use.
The status of Latin changed during this period from a living language that learners needed to be able to read, write and speak, to a dead language which was studied as an intellectual exercise. The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17 and 19 centuries, a time when thought about language teaching became fixed in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The translated or written sentences by students were examples of grammatical points and usually had not much relationship to the real world. This method became known as the grammar-translation method. Though some people tried to challenge this type of language education, it was difficult to overcome the attitude that Classical Latin (and to a lesser degree Greek) was the most ideal language and the way it was taught was the model for the way language should be taught. When modern languages were taught as a part of the curriculum, beginning in the 18 century, they were usually taught using the same method as Latin.
The grammar-translation method was the dominant FL teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world, even today. However, even as early as the mid-19th. theorists were beginning to doubt about the principles behind the grammar-translation method. Changes were beginning to happen. There was an impressively large demand for ability to speak FL. and various reformers began reconsidering the nature of language and of learning. Among these reformers were two Frenchmen, C.Marcel and F.Gouin, and an Englishman, T.Pendergast. Through their unrelated observations, they concluded that the way that children learned language was relevant to how adults should learn language. Marcel emphasized the significance of understanding meaning in language learning. Pendergast proposed the first structural syllabus. He proposed arranging grammatical structures so that the easiest were taught first. Gouin believed that children learned language through using language for a sequence of related actions. He stressed presenting each item in context and using gestures to supplement verbal meaning.
Though the ideas of these and other reformers had some influence for a time, they didn’t become widespread or last long. They were outside of the established educational circles, and the networks of conferences and journals which exist today didn’t exist then to spread their ideas.
Nevertheless, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, linguists became interested in the problem of the best way to teach languages. These reformers, as Henry Sweet of England, Wilhelm Victor of Germany, and Paul Passy of France, believed that language teaching should be based on scientific knowledge about language, that it should begin with speaking and expand to other skills, that words and sentences should be presented in context, that grammar should be taught inductively, and that translation should, for the most part, be avoided. These ideas spread, and were consolidated in what became known as the Direct method, first of the natural methods. The Direct method became popular in language schools, but it was not very practical with larger classes or in public schools.
In the early to mid-1900s developments in other fields such as psychology, behaviorism has had a great effect on language teaching resulting in the audio-lingual method. The audio-lingual method has students listen to or view tapes of language models acting in situations. Students practice with variety of drills, and their instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The audio-lingual method was used by the United States Army for «crash» instruction in FL during World War II. Despite the documented success of these programs, they are no longer common.
In the years following World War II, great changes took place that influenced on language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased so there were more languages to learn.
Expansion of schooling meant that language learning was no longer the privileged of the elite but something necessary for widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the demand for language learning. As a result, renewed efforts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to 1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV and computers) effectively in language teaching, 2) explore new educational models (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, etc.) and 3) establish methodological innovations (audio-lingual method). Yet, the desired increase in the effectiveness of language education didn’t come about, and some of the theoretical footings of the developments were called into issue.
The start of the mid-1960s is distinguished by a range of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, as per which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again, (e.g., a sentence is changed from affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb.) so that the language learner can form big number of sentences.
Other theorists have also proposed ideas influencing language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning. He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learners’ present proficiency.
There have been big developments since the early 1970s. Individualized instruction, development, of communicative approach, more humanistic approach to language learning and finally a greater stress on authenticity in language learning has become more required. Some «new methods» have gained followings.
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms, it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse.
Language immersion puts students in a situation where they must use a FL, whether or not they know it. This creates fluency, but not accuracy of usage. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the state school system as part of the drive towards bilingualism.
Minimalist/Methodologist approach (Paul Rowe’s minimalist/ Methodologist approach) is underpinned with Paul Nation’s three actions of successful ESL (English as a second language) teachers. Initially it was written specifically for unqualified, inexperienced people teaching in EFL (English as FL) situations. Still experienced language teachers are also responding positively to its simplicity. Language items are usually provided using flashcards. There is a focus on language-in-context and multi-functional practices.
Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by US diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide phrasebook- type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student’s usage is accurate and precise. Conversely the student’s choice of what to say is not flexible.
Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The students take the teacher’s role and teach their peers. An important target is developing web-sensibility.
The Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. Over a dozen audio-tape programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method.
Several methodologies that emphasize understanding language in order to learn, rather than producing it, exist as varieties of the comprehension approach. These include Total Physical Response and the natural approach of Steven Krashen and Tracy D.Terrell.
The Silent Way is a discovery learning approach, proposed by Galeb Gattegno in the 50s of the last century. It is often considered to be one of the humanistic approaches. It is called The Silent Way because the teacher is usually silent, leaving room for students to talk and explore the language. It is often associated with Cuisenaire rods and wall charts where words are colour-coded; each phoneme a different colour.
Besides voluminous methods and approaches there are certain learning strategies that play big role in language teaching/learning.
Code switching, i.e. changing between languages at some point in a sentence or utterance, is commonly used communication strategy among language learners and bilinguals. While traditional methods of formal instruction often discourage code switching, students, especially those placed in a language immersion situation, often use it. If viewed as a learning strategy, wherein the student uses tha target language for any element of an utterance that they are unable to produce in the target language, than it has the advantages that it encourages fluency development and motivation and a sense of accomplishment by enabling the student to discuss topics of interest to him or her early in the learning process - before requisite vocabulary has been memorized.
Blended learning combines face-to-face teaching with distance education, frequently electronic, either computer-based or web- based. It has been a major growth point in the ELT (English language Teaching) industry over the last two decades.
Some people, yet, use the phrase «Blended Learning» to refer to learning taking place while focus is on other activities. For example, playing a card game that requires calling for cards may allow blended learning of numbers (1 to 10).
Private tutoring, i.e. tutoring by a native speaker can be one of the most effective ways of learning. However, it requires a skilled, motivated native tutor, which can be a rare, expensive commodity. That tutor may draw on one or several of the above methods.
Besides proposed methods and approaches through history, there are also some other means that broaden the choice of learning FL like language study holidays, language education on the internet, etc.
An increasing number of people are now combining holidays with language study in the native country. This enables the student to experience the target culture by meeting local people. Such a holiday often combines formal lessons, cultural excursions, leisure activities and homestay, perhaps with time to travel in the country afterwards. Language study holidays are popular across Europe due to the ease of transportation and to the small geographical distances. Many individuals travel to the UK alone to learn English.
The internet has emerged as a powerful medium to teach and learn FLs which provides a beneficial supplement to real world language schooling. Websites provide language exchange, i.e. two users with complementary language skills, e.g., a native English speaker and a native Chinese speaker who are eager to learn one another’s language from different countries, can teach each other their languages.
There are a number of portals that offer language content, some in interactive form. Content typically comprises phrases with translation in multiple languages, text speech engines, learning activities such as quizzes or puzzles based on language concepts for free.