Письменность и человечество

BuxDU Pedagogika fakulteti BTU yo’nalishi
1”B’guruh talabasi
Jo`raqulov Abrorning Husnixat o’qitish metodikasi fanidan tayyorlagan

Buxoro -2013

WRITING AND HUMANITY

We know who invented the electric motor and antibiotics, the constitution and the computer. But these inventions that changed the life of humanity, never took place would be like if someone in ancient times, whose names we will never know, did not invent the farming, processing and writing. Today's children, putting out their first letters, doodles, do not think at this time of their distant ancestors. They came into the world, which can not be imagined without a script, without the myriad variety of texts. To live in this world, we must be able to read and write, or find yourself on the side of the road. Yet the fate of one man if he had not written, would have changed less dramatically, as the fate of all mankind.

Almost a million years generations were connected only by threads of myths and rituals, and the different tribes - just bizarre rumors. At that moment, when it was first carved, scratched, inscribed the name of the leader, or god, or tribe - we'll never know for sure - before history began. The days when there was no written language, called - prehistoric. Before man existed for two realities: everyday, momentary, events in which there is so far as they can see, hear, or remember, and the continued reality of myths that reigned over time. Myths and rituals were then the only piggy bank of all human achievements. Now, a third reality - historical. Person was included in the flow of history, he now knows about the events that have never been seen, can tell us your descendants, that will never speak. First and only divine events were timeless, now stand the test of time and human affairs. What makes people today will remember and evaluate not only his contemporaries but also distant descendants. So, the first thing required to humanity writing - history, and with it - the new value of all the events and actions.

***
Myths tell of all the civilizations of the divine origin of writing - people understand its value forever. And the possibility to write and read for a long time there was only for the elite, especially priests and government officials. Otherwise it could not be, because to learn reading and writing, required to memorize and learn to represent thousands of complex characters - characters. When the Phoenicians, followed by the Greeks created sound-letter alphabet letter from dozens of simple icons, which is capable of mastering every few weeks, there was, perhaps, the most quiet and the greatest revolution in the history of mankind.

The ancient Babylonians knew much about the movement of celestial bodies. Further observations could be made one, even a genius. Babylonian astronomy evolved over the centuries, the data accumulated, refined, passed on from generation to generation. Information allowed the Babylonians to the Greeks build the first scientific picture of the world, to lay the foundations of science. All this could not take place without the written language. Science - is primarily a dialogue to make his move, the scientist has to make a start on what made predecessors, critically rethinking everything, apparently, not. Therefore, writing - is the ability of science, and therefore the technological progress.
In Preliterate time to keep the faith of ancestors can be only one way - literally, word of mouth to pass the myths and rituals, without changing the sound, not pondering without exposing personal doubts. Stories already written text may be subject to criticism. He is man-made - and therefore, may contain errors that need to find and fix. Have a reason to try to understand the texts, analyze the meaning and principles of construction. Right to religion alone, exclusively address issues about the meaning of life, human nature, the principles of morality in the past. Writing - a step towards freedom of thought.
One of the most significant events in human history - the Reformation - was motivated people to read religious texts in their own language, to think about them, to question and make decisions. But this was possible only because the texts were written down and with the invention of printing made available to everyone. Today, any literate person can read the pagan stories, the Torah, the Gospel, the Koran, the Vedas, legends about the Buddha and Lao Tzu, to take something in them or reject. We can say that writing - it's a real possibility of freedom of conscience.
Government ... has agreed with residents about the amount of tribute, homage is paid, and again he sends soldiers, wants more. The man took a long six rams and two returns and says that two and take. No record, no document - is to solve the dispute by force. Let us imagine that in today's world disappeared document - not only paper with a stamp, and the concept documented agreement. Civilization would instantly crumbled like a house of cards: the economy, politics, laws - would lose all meaning.
This is not only dishonest: human memory is unreliable and limited, well, if you're dealing with two or three partners, and how to work the banks, businesses, hospitals? Reliability and validity of the information, and as a consequence of the economy and the legal system - it is also the fruit of writing.
Long gone are the days when you had to make important decisions for the community, just gathered in the square - it would be too big meeting. Hopefully, the place and the time when people are not willing to make decisions, and obey the will of the leader, king or dictator. Critical decisions must be made by popular vote, which is impossible to imagine without the writing. Solutions less important can be taken in an area if there will come dear, earning the trust people (in fact, today this area is the Parliament). But this option is only useful when all the others have not got to the area, they know what decisions are made to be able to influence them - or parliament will same dictator is collective action. Can not do without writing accessible to all, especially the free press. Opportunity for citizens to influence the decisions that affect them, ie democracy - are also the fruit of writing.
Of course, this is not all that gave humanity writing. One can think about the great literature of the letters, connecting people separated by thousands of kilometers, about the many lives saved thanks to a note in a bottle. But of all the various gifts of writing something in common. This is - freedom. Freedom of time and distance, ignorance and deception, the freedom to make decisions, to communicate, to trust, to create. And the journey of writing - the path of freedom. Most recently, by historical standards, the letter was a secret knowledge of a few, but the book - inaccessible treasure. Today, the world is on the threshold of literacy. Millions of books, internet wealth - all at the disposal of a man ready to take the priceless gift of the ancestors - writing.

WHAT IS WRITING?

In Russian there are two different words letter. These words - homonyms: their external form is the same (they are written and pronounced the same way), and the values ​​are different. If translated into other languages, homonymy often disappears. English letter, the French or the German lettre Brief - This is the email message, and the words writing, ecriture Schrift and in the same language - is writing.
Whats the meaning of the word to write? The history of words meaning 'write' in different languages ​​shows how people understand this action earlier, compared with what it, what were building.
Express this value in different languages ​​can be originally verbs, but their "biography" are often similar. Thus, the Russian verb write originally associated with the color and painting with a brush (this idea is preserved in the root word painting) and is a relative of the Latin pingere 'paint brush'. By origin it is linked to another Russian word motley 'color', 'color'. The same can be said of his relatives in the Slavic languages, Lithuanian same root is associated not only with color, but the color of soot, ie with black (corresponding verb means 'draw', 'charcoal drawing'). Gothic verb me: ljan 'write' initially had the same value (a close relative - German male 'draw'). Latin scribere 'write' and its related German schreiben, English to inscribe with the same value originally meant 'cut' (here, by the way, and the Russian word manuscript, taken from Latin, where it meant 'manuscript'). More common in the English language the verb to write 'write' corresponds to Old Norse ri: ta 'cut (runes)' and modern German ritzen 'scratch'. The Greek grapho 'I write' (hence the Russian words graphics, spelling) - also meant 'is cut out' (his cousin - German verb kerben 'nock').
Thus, verbs meaning 'to write', as a rule, go back to the roots or meaning 'cut', or meaning 'color', 'variegate'. Indeed, a common feature of written symbols (draw) or cut (scratching). Of course, in these days of typewriters and then computers have changed the process of writing. However, the letter is still associated with any surface and dedicated to her signs.

LONG WAY WRITTEN

D
revnegrechesky historian Herodotus (V century AD.) told me that when the mighty and invincible Persian king Darius I waged war against the nomadic Scythians, who "delayed and no end to be seen," Scythian kings to Darius messenger with gifts. This was a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. Persian messenger asked what these offerings, but he replied that he was only ordered to hand over the gifts and return as soon as possible. Persians had themselves to understand the meaning of these gifts ...
Persians gathered advice. Darius believed that the Scythians give themselves in his power, and therefore brought him in submission land and water, for the mouse lives in the ground, the frog lives in the water, the bird, fast as the horse - a sign of escape, and the arrows indicate that the Scythians refuse resistance. One of the wise men who accompanied the king disagreed. He interpreted the message of the Scythians in another way, "If you, the Persians, the birds do not fly into the sky, or as a mouse, not bury in the ground, or, as a frog, do not gallop into the swamp, you do not go back, struck by these arrows" . Subsequent events have shown that the right was this particular sage perky Darius was defeated by the Scythians.
Herodotus brings to our knowledge, not only of one of the historical events, but also of the earliest ancestors of writing. Gifts of the Scythians were a kind of way to communicate, which scientists call the subject letter. Once upon a time, at least 10 thousand years ago, he started the history of writing.
But is it possible to read the message of the Scythian kings letter? And where there is the border between this script and its ancestors?

HOW TO SET UP WRITING

Below is an excerpt from the work of American writer Henry Uoldsuorta Longfellow (1807-1882), "The Song of Hiawatha", which was created on the basis of Indian tales.

"In the meeting - one on one

We conduct our conversation;
But, after leaving, we commit
Our secrets to those who are
We send each other;
And the messengers often
Distort our lead
Or other open them. "

So said to myself one day

Hiawatha, thinking
About his own people
And wandering in the forest wilderness.

He took out of the bag of paint,

He took all the colors of paint
And on the smooth bark on
Did a lot of secret characters
Wondrous and figures and symbols;
All of them are represented
Our thoughts, our speech.
Gitche Manito, the mighty
The egg was painted;
Outstanding points
The egg - designated
All the four winds of heaven.
"Omnipresent Lord of Life" -
That's what this character.

Mitch Manito, the mighty,

Lord of all the evil spirits,
Was presented in the figure,
As the great serpent, Kinebik.
"Reptiles Spirit Malice,
But the cunning and resourceful "-
That's what this character.

The white circle was a sign of life,

Black circle was a sign of death;
Next came Image
Sky, the stars, the moon and the sun,
Water, forests and mountain heights,
And all that inhabits
Earth with man.
For the earth, he drew
Paint line direct
For heaven - an arc above it,
For sunrise - the point on the left
For the sunset - the point on the right,
And for half a day - on top.
The space under dugoyu
White Day meant,
Star in the center - the night,
A wavy stripes -
Clouds, rain and bad weather.

Next, directed to the lodge,

Was the emblem of the invitation,
Familiar friendly feasting
Bloody hands,
Menacingly raised upward -
Sign of anger and threats ...

Thus, in their worries wise

The people, Hiawatha
Taught him the art of
And writing and drawing
A birch bark glossy,
A reindeer white skin
And on the posts of burial.

LETTER AND NEPISMO

In
of Russian writing - a letter, that the English - LITERATURE, Greek - ULSCHID. Exact - written texts, and the letter itself - the method or means by which these texts are created. Seeing them, no one can doubt that he is dealing with a letter. And what about the children's scribbles, drawings - an explanation of the road, traffic signs, maps? Perhaps we can all agree that children's scribbles letter are not. They usually do not contain any message. This is a drawing just for fun (at least, so think adults). A letter should convey information.
Maps, road signs, and many other means of communication of information is transmitted, but it's not a letter. It is not that they allow us to write specific statements. A letter - writing is speech. But will the letter a voice recording to tape? No, the letter - only what can be seen with the eyes, it is necessary, captured on a surface. Attempt to express a pattern or symbolic signs a thought there will not be a letter, a letter assumes the system, ie Use only pre-defined character on certain rules.
Modern letter writing seems pretty simple and convenient. In fact, it has incorporated a myriad of rules, conditional agreements and remarkable discoveries. Writing roots go back to ancient times. About IX to II millennium BC people started using animal figures or just objects (sticks, stones) to "record" and the account of cattle, ie opened a substantive letter. It is not clear, it is the ancestor of modern writing or collateral? Ancient inventions of mankind, similar to the letter (but letters are not), is the pre-written. Based on some pre-written letter arose. Others have remained dead-end paths of human thought, of which did not develop anything new, although their goals - include cattle and pass a simple message - they were good.
Do not become sources of literature, for example, sticks with notches. With their help, once pointed out the number of items - sold, borrowed, etc. sometimes these sticks were splitting lengthwise into two parts, the creditor and the debtor received the halves with the same number of notches. The result was a "documentary record" of the treaty, the authenticity of which can be verified by combining these halves. Subject letter and considered such ancient communication mechanisms, as wampum and bale.
Wampum - it cords strung with them shells of different colors or belts, woven from such cords. North American Indians (Iroquois and some other people) used wampum to transmit information. Quantity, color and relative shells were significant (for example, white means peace, purple - the war), so that with the help of a large number of shells were quite complex messages.
Kip (nodular letter) - it stick or a thick rope tied to it with colored cords of varying lengths. To record information used not sink, and nodules on cords. Important are the color and the length of the cord, and the number of knots.

"The world is big, HOW BAOBAB!"

Some African peoples exist in the form of a substantive letter necklaces of colored beads, shells, and grains. With them were the messages - a declaration of love, danger warnings, invitations. The Nigerian Yoruba people of the death penalty notifies original message - parrot eggs, like orange five grains of the same story by Arthur Conan Doyle.
An interesting example of pictographic writing a letter to the people of Ewe proverbs living in Nigeria and Ghana. The standard used to record images (or rather, a reminder) "old man's words," that is folk wisdom. Conditional symbols and pictures carved on the vessels of the pumpkin - calabash. Here are some examples of entries Ewe proverbs:

"Where a needle, thread and there" (sons followed in the footsteps of his father).

"The world is big, like a baobab!" (A person tries, standing among the trees, embrace them all at once.)

Africa has a long tradition and better forms of writing, not borrowed, while indigenous. Thus, residents are consonant Saharan Tuareg Tifinagh letter, from the ancient Libyan writing, has not yet been decoded. Vai people living Liberia and Sierra Leone, pischet syllabic writing, which he created in 1833, Momolu Luvale Bukele based on an ancient, non-preservation of picture writing nsibidi.

CEPU - Lumpy LETTER Inca

Scientists still have not come to a definite conclusion whether the writing of the Incas - Native American people who lived in what is now the Republic of Peru in XII-XIV centuries. No state can not exist without writing: to maintain a permanent register, send messages about events in the country, orders. The creators of a vast state - the largest in pre-Columbian America - had to have a letter. However, it was never found.
It seems that the letter of the Incas (or rather, pre-written) simply had too unusual appearance. Kip (ideytsev Quechua language - "node") - an original product of the Inca culture is wool or cotton rope, which ranks tied laces. The number of laces on one pitch reached a hundred, and they tied knots of various shapes. The amount and form indicates the number of nodes. Farthest from the ropes knots consistent units, a little closer are dozens, even closer - hundreds, thousands ...
With these nodules resembling dominoes accounts expressed any number, and the color of the cord meant this or that subject. Brown color symbolized potatoes, yellow - gold, red - soldiers, etc. Kip allows officials to transmit a variety of information about taxes, the number of soldiers in a particular province, refers to people who went to the war, the number of deaths, births or deaths, and more.
Decoded information specific commentators pile - a pile-kamayokuna. Chief among them was a "personal secretary" Supreme Governor of the Incas - Great Inca, handing him the summaries. Spaniards, faced with a pile, were impressed by the speed and accuracy with which they were given a variety of information. Picking up the pile, pile-kamayokuna immediately began to "read" on the cords and knots. Narrator's voice could scarcely catch his gaze and hand movements.
Pictographs: from drawing to Characters

Was pre-written and pictography. The word is borrowed from the Greek language and means "picture writing", ie one for which the message is transmitted through drawings. By pictographs, apparently, are the ancient rock paintings.

Pictography used in the modern world. Thus, drawing a knife and fork on a road sign, which means that there is a restaurant nearby - it is a real icon. Another example - running, swimming, boxing human figures. Such icons at the Olympics and other major international sporting events represent different kinds of sports. The icons are convenient because they do not relate to a specific language, and everyone understands. But that's why they are not suitable for speech and writing are not actually.
Pictography - extralinguistic sign system, as it directly expresses the thoughts, not the words and sentences. Nevertheless, it was the oldest of her verbal message. Many of the people who created pictographs or other writing, and have not managed to invent their own letter. About certain things hard to say that in front of us: pre-written or are writing. For example, scientists are still arguing about the tablets from Easter Island, about the Aztec and other pre-written letter.
The present letter arises only when the image is not a picture, but a sign, an abstraction. This was an opportunity to use the transformation of said such a sign in a figurative sense, transmit, and other words that sound like or as. Similarly, record and modern puzzles. Similarly, it was put together and the ancient letter. Rebusny principle occasionally met in the pre-written. In a sign system used by the Yoruba people of Africa, six shells mean 'attractive' (a cord with six shells - something like a love letter.) This sign appears because the words sound and attractive six Yoruba alike - [efa]. So there is a connection between the sign-sounding speech, and style - the basis of any written language.

KARTINOPIS Aztecs

In 1521, Spanish troops led by Hernan Cortes invaded Tenochtitlan, the capital of the mighty Aztec empire. The magnificent city that was richer and grander every European capital at the time, was destroyed. In its place is now the capital of Mexico, Mexico City. But the memory of the ancient civilization did not disappear without a trace. In addition to numerous archaeological finds discovered during the excavations, have survived colorful books Aztecs called codes.
Typically, records produced on specially treated skin or "paper" from the bark of the wild fig trees, pre-dressed and primed. Ancient Book - tlakuila - was a long strip of this paper, for the convenience of the folded "accordion". Scribes and commentators also called tlakuilami records.
Letter Aztecs could be called kartinopisyu all books - is a series of color images. Historians are not always easy to read drawings, which marked the objects and events that have not purchased a sustainable value. Aztec writing only the first steps in becoming a hieroglyphic.
The concept of "taking the city" passed the burning pattern of the temple, and "Journey" - a chain of footprints. Of great importance was the color, which was stained with a particular image. The human figure yellow means necessarily a woman, painted purple - the supreme ruler.
Yet Aztec tlakuily - is not just a picture, and the transition to the letter form pictographs. They separate verbal signs - concrete or symbolic image for the definition: the signs for the night, home, stone, water, signs for numbers. Aztecs portrayed as water flow, merging of multiple streams, each stream at the beginning - a round drop or snail shell. There are also signs rebusnye: they were used to convey the sound of names and names. Thus, the name meant Itskoatl "Serpent Boom": you can draw a snake (coatl) and above the arrow (itstli).
With his letter, the Aztecs recorded size of tribute received from the conquered tribes were calendar on religious and memorials, and were historical chronicles.
Development of Aztec writing was interrupted Spanish conquest. However, during the XVI century, the Aztecs occasionally used his letter. Aztec writing helped save, passing from generation to generation, the literary texts of ancient people - the solemn hymns and lyrical poems, legends and myths. The tradition of collective singing, supported by the rulers and was educated in schools contributed to the preservation of ancient texts intact.
A huge part of the Aztec books were burned by the Spanish, many of the remaining looted. Now in the collections of museums in Europe and the U.S. found them much more than in the Mexico City ...

Character: from meaning to sounds

Pcheap writing - Ancient East. Is considered the most ancient Sumerian writing (the people who lived in Mesopotamia in the Near East). Sumerian script arose over 5 thousand years ago. Among the oldest of the original scripts were scripts in Elam (the state in Asia Minor), in Egypt, the Indus Valley, China, Asia Minor, the Hittites, and in Crete. In Central America, the Maya have in the I millennium BC there was the youngest of the ancient writing. Of all these systems of writing has survived only Chinese.
There is a hypothesis that of the Sumerian writing are all other writing (except letters Maya). Sumerian script is well studied, known for its centuries-long evolution from the icons to the word mark and then to verbally syllable. However, neither confirm nor refute this hypothesis, scientists can not: too little is known about such distant history.
The earliest examples of Sumerian writing - this tag (usually clay) with a stamp and a note of the number that are tied to objects or animals. Then came the more sophisticated user table. The outstanding achievement of the Sumerians was the fact that they will indicate the number of individual characters. For example, five cows match five circles and drawing cows, not five figures cows in various pre-written. Gradually the system more complicated. A standard characters - characters with which it easiest to portray certain things: the sun, cows, birds, etc. Signs, drawings were used for related words: for example, the sign of the sun came to mean 'bright', 'light', 'day'. For some of the concepts used in the combination of signs. Thus, the word slave is indicated by two figures - women and the mountains - because slaves were brought to Sumer usually from the mountains. Gradually, all the icons are less like drawings. The Sumerians came standard symbols, consisting of wedge-shaped lines, very vaguely resembles the old drawings. Perhaps the appearance of the Sumerian writing due to the fact that the signs of scratch out on the wet clay. The shape of the wedge-shaped dashes Sumerian script, and his successors in Mesopotamia called cuneiform.
The hardest thing was to represent abstract concepts, proper names, and various function words and morphemes. This helped rebusny principle. For example, in a letter to the Sumerian sign arrows were used not only for the word boom, but for the life of words that sounded well - [ti]. Using repeatedly rebusny principle Sumerians consolidated for some characters is not a specific value, and the sound reading. As a result, there syllabic signs that could indicate some short sequence of sounds, often syllable (hence the name).
Thus, it was first formed in Sumer connection between sounding speech and written signs, which were essential to the present writing. The use of signs to indicate the sound of words is called a shell fonetizatsiey. It is characteristic of all word-syllabic writing. In them there are three types of characters: verbal, syllabic, and support - determinative. Syllabic signs used both independently and for the maintenance of verbal signs to clarify their pronunciation. Sign-determinative designated general concepts and always joined to other signs, explaining their meaning. With his own name Ashur contacted determinative city, country or the deity to be clear about what exactly Ashur question - god, city or country.
In word-syllabic writing systems are so many different characters. This is rather inconvenient, because all they have to remember, in addition, not for each language, such a system is suitable. In Chinese, the word does not change on cases, numbers, time, and other grammatical categories. Therefore, character (ie verbal sign) is always read one. For example, in the Russian language (if we use such a script) to sign TABLE every time would have to ascribe the phonetic symbols for the endings: TABLE-A TABLE-ohm etc. Therefore, the Chinese writing system, once in his time in Korea and Japan, has taken root there is not very good: in the Korean and Japanese-developed system of inflection.
However, word marks, there are some advantages. Understand such a text can not know its pronunciation. In China, people speak different dialects that do not understand each other, so in many ways they pronounce words. But the written text is understandable to all. If we rewrite the letter in accordance with the pronunciation, then it will turn to a variety of texts (for each dialect of the). That saves hieroglyphic writing Chinese as a whole.

WHY CAN NOT Hieroglyphics

According to the book of MV Panova "Entertaining spelling" (author's style is preserved).
Everyone knows the word singer. And Mayakovsky neologism - songster.
Imagine that we have a hieroglyphic writing ... for the word character is a singer (may be a sign of "sing", and before him - the determinant, determinative, and he points out that it is a man).
But we do not need to pass the proverbial word singer, and a new, established poet: songster. What to do? Kanji for the word songster not. Wait until it enters the language will become commonplace, and then for a "cooked" character? And it will never enter into a language that is will not become common. Not for it coined Mayakovsky. It is - for all the new word, ie all surprising, unusual, festive, not everyday.
Do not wait until a neologism for this character, and it come by? We both come up, but no one know it will not. Do not run the same on all the familiar and unfamiliar, explaining, "This is - you see? This character stands for 'songster' "...
One of the characters IS Turgenev said Principe instead of principles. In AN Ostrovsky says sumlevayus lackey. The hero of the modern feuilleton, ignoramus with a claim to education, uses the word ACCEPT instead aspect. All this is necessary for writers characteristics of heroes. As is to pass on the letter, letters easily, and characters - it is difficult or impossible.
It turns out that using the letters using the letters we can pass all the richness of the language: the unusual words, and stylistic features of pronunciation, and all sorts of linguistic innovations - this will not save enough characters. A letter easily takes the most unexpected, unconventional, unusual words.

Syllables: Another step

H
and syllabic signs on the ancient word-syllabic writing systems arose purely syllabic writing system. Among the most famous of syllabic cuneiform scripts (Old Persian, Akkadian and other heirs of Sumerian writing) zapadnosemitskie (heirs of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics) and two Japanese syllabic system (the successor of Chinese writing).
To the special type are zapadnosemitskie writing (Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, Arabic, etc.). Usually in the syllabary characters represent more than one sound, and a few - usually syllables, ie combination of public and one or more consonants. In zapadnosemitskih writings were only signs for consonants, which in the text to denote an individual or a consonant, or a combination of consonant with any vowel. This type of writing is called a consonant (from Lat. Consonans (consonantis) - «consonant").
Zapadnosemitskomu letter, namely, the Phoenician, was destined to play in the history of mankind a huge role. After all, most of it was modern scripts, such as Greek letters, which gave the modern world Latin and Cyrillic. And from the Latin script, in turn, took the British, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Polish, Czech, etc., of the Cyrillic - Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and many Mongol letter written languages ​​of the former Soviet Union.
By letter zapadnosemitskomu rises and Aramaic writing, and through it - the modern Arab and one Jewish. From Aramaic letters are numerous Indian script (Kharosthi, Devanagari, etc.), as well as Armenian and Georgian letter. Thus, out of the common in the modern world scripts only Chinese, Japanese and Korean are not related to the Phoenician script.

Mysteriously RUNES

Runes, letters of the ancient Germans, were used for a long time - with the II-III centuries. until the late Middle Ages, when they replaced the spread in Europe the Latin letter. The word rune (runa) in the language of ready means "secret." Runic inscriptions - on guns, rocks, trees - are found in different parts of Europe: in Germany, Scotland, Scandinavia, Denmark, and France.
The unusual shape of the runic characters: their pointy little resemblance to the shape of the letter alphabets. However, it is also an alphabet rather group alphabets: high runes, younger runes, the Anglo-Saxon runes. Their shape is because the first runes carved on a tree and vertical lines easily lay along the grain. Unusual and the order of the letters in the alphabet: f, u, th, a, r, k; and he called Futhark alphabet - the first six letters.
Faces and order of the letters in the alphabet indicate its particular origin, not related to Greek or Latin script. In IV. Gothic bishop Ulf invented for Gothic alphabet based on Greek and translated into his Bible. However, the Germanic peoples for many centuries used the runes as cryptography. In our time, tried to revive the runes, fascist ideologues have declared their German invention, testifying to the superiority of the German race over others. But now scientists are inclined to believe that the runes was used a variant of the Etruscan writing, which took over living in the Alps German tribes.
Renewed interest in the runes found an echo in the current literature. Thus, the English writer John Ronald Reyel Tolkien, author of the fabulous trilogy "The Lord of the Rings" to the world of Middle-earth invented languages ​​and literature - Runes of elves and gnomes. Rune dwarves resemble German runes.
Endure a long time and another mysterious letter that was used in England in the century a new era - ogamicheskoe. As the sign is horizontal and oblique lines of different lengths and combinations thereof. Inscriptions on the Old Irish and Pictish languages ​​carved this letter. Picts - not an Indo-European people living on nearby Scotland and the British Isles before the Celts. Although Pictish inscription and decipherable, but the researchers to the end they are not decrypted.
Unexpected similarities with German scientists discovered the runes at the monuments of the Orkhon-Yenisey script VIII. They were discovered in 1889 by the Russian traveler NM Yadrintsev Orkhon River valley south of Lake Baikal (in what is now Mongolia). The inscriptions on the tombstones were made unknown runic script and Chinese characters. Similar inscriptions found in the valley of the Yenisei River in Siberia. Chinese researchers have shortened version of the text - kvazibilingvu that allowed them to quickly decipher the Orkhon-Yenisey inscriptions. As it turned out they were hiding the ancient Turkic language. The solution of the problem Orkhon came very close Russian linguist Vasily Radlov (1837-1918), but it was ahead of Danish explorer Ludwig Wilhelm Thomsen (1842-1927). Radlov was able to implement the first complete translation of texts based on deciphering Thomsen.
Ancient runes have nothing to do on the internal structure of the letter to the German runes: a special writing system independently developed independently of the European.
Absolutely amazing similarity (not only in form but also in the structure), B. Thomsen found among ancient Turkic runic letter VIII. and drevnevengerskim runic letter XVI century. most puzzling about this story is that the monuments letters, dated from VIII to XVI century. found. This is yet another unsolved mystery of runes.

Alphabetic writing - Venice GRAPHIC EVOLUTION

To onsonantnoe letter is well suited to the Semitic languages, where the consonants are of particular importance: the root of the word is made up of consonants (usually three). combined with vowels are used for word formation and inflection. It looks like a one way plurals in the Germanic languages, such as English: man - men ('people' - 'the people'), goose - geese ('Goose' - 'geese'). But in English these words a bit, but this is the only Semitic language and a regular method of inflection. The text in these languages, recorded only consonants, clear enough (as if it were recorded in Russian only basic words, such as girls in school for Eid hands with mothers). The general meaning is obvious, although it is not clear about one girl said or a few. In Semitic languages ​​have vowels and consonants different grammatical problems. Semitic letter developing towards consonant vowel text. This means that the input text subscript and superscript (diacritical) icons that represent vowels. Above or below the corresponding consonant (in the form of points or special icons) celebrated its vocalization, ie accompanying vowel. Texts written Semitic letter to divide texts with vowels (more understandable) and without vowels (less clear, but still readable).
The path to the peer marking of consonants and vowels was long. Already zapadnosemitskih writing systems for vowel sometimes used the so-called matres lectionis (literally "mother reading") - the signs that help to read. It is about four consonant sounds - [w], [j], ['] and [h] (the last two - special sounds of Semitic languages). Sounds [w], [j] were close to the vowel [u], [i], and according to ['] and [h] were like the vowel [a]. When the Phoenician letter began using Greek, vowel became mandatory. First used the "mother reading", and later signs for vowels are different from the characters for consonants. For example, in Latin script was originally only one sign «V», which is always read before a vowel as a consonant [w], and between consonants - as vowel [u]. Then this sign as it bisected by «V» and «U» (so they look like graphically.) In modern Greek letters for vowels, equivalent to a letter designating consonants (all letters are in line together).
But in the Russian language there was a reverse process: the drive letter for the first consonant of the letter came to the vowel, and (just had to add to it in superscript icon).
So there was a sound-letter letter written sign denotes not a word, not the morpheme, and the sound. Writing is no longer trying to directly transfer meaning as pictography or hieroglyphics, she just recorded the audio stream, and this path was the most effective.
Sound-letter or alphabet, letter crowning graphic evolution. It is the most economical (sounds in the language is less than syllables and syllables less than words) and is suitable for all types of languages, but not in other types of writing. Writing, consisting only of verbal signs, inconvenient, for example, for languages ​​with rich inflection (as denoted by the individual morphemes?). Syllabic writing is not very suitable for languages ​​with a large cluster of consonants.
Writing as if left in the background, giving people the freedom to express their thoughts, reducing interference in communication and understanding to a minimum.

SECRET POWER LETTERS

In ancient times, there was an idea that the letters - the basic "elements" (beginning) of the world. According to legend, in the III. Roman soldiers burned alive the Jewish scribe, together with the shrine of his life - the sacred scroll. During the execution of the disciples asked the dying teacher: "What do you see?" And he replied: "Scroll of burns, but the letters fly away."
Most revered characters in Islamic culture. Muslim scholars and experts in law for centuries discussed, allowed silt to step on the part of the carpet, woven with letters. One day after the battle of Muslims against the Crusaders was a prisoner exchange. Crusaders were surprised to learn that Muslims share not generals, and a scholar and calligrapher. So highly valued knowledge of the letter!
From the point of view of scientists hurufistov (from Arabic. "Huruf" - "letter"), each letter of the Arabic alphabet has a deep symbolic meaning. It corresponds to a particular color, element, planet, zodiac sign, number. Philosophers have argued that if the know the truth, the deep essence of the letters, you can rule the world. Just thought and followers of the mystical currents in Judaism - Kabbalah.
A look at the letter as the primary "building block" of the world met and in more recent times to us. At the beginning of XX century in Russia said this poet Velimir Khlebnikov. He wanted to build a new language, which was to unite the people and "the magic of meaning" to remake the existing world. "Word creation teaches - Khlebnikov wrote - that the diversity of the word comes from the basic sounds of the alphabet, replacing the seed of the word. From these starting points based word sower and new languages ​​can simply fill the palm of twenty-eight sounds of the alphabet, the grains of language. " For the poet letters were not just unity typeface and sound values ​​to each letter of the alphabet, he attributed a special meaning. Velimir Khlebnikov called the letters "ABC warriors" and sent them into battle in the poem "Zangezi," published in 1922, For example, the letter X, the value of which - "defensive line":

A grove - Ha spring Affairs

Dubrova - Ha gods desire,
And eyebrows - Ha spring gaze
And Spit - Ha midnight parties.

CALLIGRAPHY and stenography

Since humans invented writing, they tried to improve it in two ways: to learn to write, first, beautiful, and, second, faster. So there Calligraphy (from the Greek. «Kalligraphia» - «beautiful handwriting") - the art of beautiful writing and cursive - Quick writing skills.
Calligraphy writing to art. Outstanding scribes years produces special handwriting on which gradually developed certain fonts: Latin uncial, poluuntsial, italic, gothic letter, Slavic charter, semi-uncial, ligature and other unsurpassed master in the art of calligraphy are considered Eastern peoples, especially the Arabs. The Koran forbids artists depict living creatures (because the image is similar to the creation, to be endowed with a soul, and breathed into him the soul may one Allah), so they could only improve in the patterns and calligraphy.
For the Chinese, Japanese and Korean character was not only written characters, but it is also a work of art. Text written ugly, could not be considered perfect in content.
Do not change for thousands of years Egyptian hieroglyphics, no doubt, the most beautiful system of writing in the ancient world. Clear form of Egyptian hieroglyphics, as if frozen in stone, reached the ideal completion.
Egyptians perfected their writing and in the other direction. Along with the monumental hieroglyphics and the system they invented shorthand, first ieratiku (from the Greek. «Hieratikos» - «sacred"), the letter of the priests, then the demotic (from the Greek. «Demotikos» - «People"), a popular message. After all, speed - a necessary quality of a good writer. This reads and Sumerian proverb: "Only a true scribe, whose hand was behind the mouth."
In cursive writing elaborated techniques simplified characters and their connection to the ligature (from Lat. «Ligatura» - «link»), ie fused writing, allow some reduction of words and phrases. Hence the system of shorthand speech - shorthand (from the Greek. «Stenos» - «narrow", "close", and «grapho» - «I write").
This system has been used in the IV. BC Athens: the historian Xenophon wrote her memories of Socrates. She was not the only one. In Rome in 63 BC Marcus Tullius Tyrone invented their own system of shorthand. Her marks were in the form drawings, simplified style of a letter and can replace whole words. The number of such characters as high as 5 th system Tyrone, eventually augmented, used in Europe for more than a thousand years. Only in the XI century., When it suddenly saw connection with witchcraft, it gradually fell into disuse.
Were of shorthand and in Russia: they can in XV. recorded "protocols" of Novgorod and Pskov Veche. Widely used Titley (~ or '): ots - "father", HH - "now", mts - "month" (with help - small with the top).
The first proper alphabetic system of shorthand was invented in England by John Willis, published in 1602 the book "The Art of cursive, or Shorthand." Since then, the term "shorthand." In the future, many different systems of shorthand for writing speeches in the courts, the debate in Parliament. They increase the rate of a few times, but they were more difficult to master than to learn several foreign languages. Stenographic record of the speed record, marked in the "Guinness Book of Records", was set in New York in 1922 and amounted to 350 words per minute - faster than say, perhaps, impossible.
Modern systems of shorthand based on phonographic principle, ie to record the sounds of speech, so they are easily adapted to different languages. Thus, the system of Pitman invented them in 1837, can be used for 20 languages, including Japanese, it still recorded records of the British Parliament.
Through secretaries and stenographers use Russian writers FM Dostoevsky, Tolstoy. In the USSR in 1933 was adopted by developed a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences Nikolai Nikolaevich Sokolov unified state system of shorthand that some improvements are still used today.

MIX TIMES

In
Life and language are always present as the achievements of the past and the beginnings of the future. When the amount of change (their regular, mandatory, etc.) into a new quality? When the drawing is the hieroglyph? When the syllabic sign turns into a letter? These and many other questions, there can be a definitive answer. That seems to be the obvious question: if we use (in our alphabetical letter) characters, or rather, verbal signs? Most emphatically say, "No".
Appears, use, and very often. Characters are, in particular, mathematical, physical and other symbols "+", "=", "%", and the numbers and the corresponding notation of numbers. We read entries like 2 + 2 = 4 or 100% of the words, so this verbal signs, ie they relate to the whole word. And what about such texts as from the river to the house is 100 meters? 100 - this character, and what is m? If read as "one hundred meters," the letter into a character. But some people (especially students) read as "one hundred" um "," and then it's all the same letter, but use special rules read.

Smiley
Computer network Fido dialect used mainly for informal meetings of its members, so there was a need to express emotions or even mimics the writer. In plain text to make it quite difficult because of what appeared specific punctuation (called emoticons). To read them, it is best to tilt your head slightly to the left: if you can see the stylized image of the programmer.

Smiley is usually located immediately after the statement to which it relates, or the end of the phrase. Most emoticons used in abbreviated form - without the middle dash - "nose." <...>

Basic emoticons:

smile.:-) Or Good mood or a funny phrase.
sad.:-( Or
: - : -> Sarcasm, mockery.
>: -> Sharp or evil sneer, to the point of insult.
: E-snarl, show teeth.
;-) Winking smile. ("Do not take offense, it's a joke.")
befuddled or indecision.:-| Or
: - \ Indecision or great surprise.
:-P Tongue.
: - * Kiss.
:-O Open-mouthed.
8-) staring. More often used in version 8-O
*) The writer is drunk.
% -) After 15 hours of sitting at the computer.

Word in uppercase letters (if not the title), is perceived as shouting. The stress (if necessary) can be allocated to capital letters.

Script and language

P
ismennost develops, evolves, but still compare and evaluate which letter is better, do not. First, as we have seen, the various types of writing may have a different approach to a particular language structure. Verbal writing easier for languages ​​with little inflection. Syllabic approach for languages ​​with simple syllable structure (then syllables and written symbols is a bit). Very often changes the letter began, when the letter "transplanted" to the new ground, inappropriate language, as was the Phoenician letter, borrowed from the Greeks.

Second, in the writing system are not just the sounds of language, and history and culture. That is why the hard-held small script, and spelling reform. Of course, they spend for the convenience of writing and reading, but suffer from this especially educated native speakers, used to a certain schedule, and spelling. Many Russian writers have not accepted the letter of reform 1917-1918. and in exile continued to publish books in the old spelling (insist on this, in particular, Ivan Bunin).
So it can hardly be expected in the near future indiscriminate transfer of all languages ​​in alphabetic script (for example, the Latin alphabet). In order to preserve the tradition and culture, and many people are willing to endure some discomfort. Virtually no graphics allow British reforms, which is why their once-alphabetic script can be alphabetic only with great reserve. Indeed, the correlation between letters and sounds in the English word knight - [najt]? But do not assume the same English letter hieroglyphic!
All these questions somehow considers theory of writing, which consists of two parts. Relationship between written characters and units of language study grammatology (in 1952, the term entered the American linguist Ignace J. Gelb, who has identified this area as a science). By the same font style signs deal paleography and epigraphy (in the case of inscriptions carved on the solid material). For example, grammatologicheskie knowledge can help, if you need to create a script for unwritten people and information on the wedge shape of the characters, their origin and method of application are paleography. Some cultures attach particular importance to the form of characters. In China, calligraphy (the ability to write beautifully) is considered art: many characters, they are complex, and scribble make the text unreadable. On the contrary, the one who writes ugly in Russian, is unlikely to be particularly vulnerable to this: writing letters almost always readable.

Spelling reform

No matter how high school students complained to the treachery of the Russian orthography, they still have better than their great-grandparents, memorizing lists of exceptions with the letter "yat". Several reforms of Russian spelling it considerably simplified. Much harder to British schoolchildren. Substantial reorganization of the English orthography been only once - in the XI., After the Norman conquest. Differences in pronunciation and spelling are found in XV century, when the first printed English books. Today, the difference is so great that the English spelling of joke: "Written Manchester, Liverpool is read." There are other fun belonging to Bernard Shaw: the absurdity of English spelling is that the word fish («Fish") could look like and how ghoti, because the sound [f] we can write letters gh, as in enough, the sound [i] - o as in women, the sound [] - ti, as in the nation.
Well-known legend about why the French spelling so complicated. Medieval literate earned money in the markets that the letters were made to order and take a fee for each letter. Ostensibly so as to lengthen the text, they are often added to the words of extra unreadable characters.
Bernard Shaw helped simplify English spelling rather original way: he left a bequest prize of 10 thousand pounds to anyone who will offer a new spelling for English.
In 1959, England have developed an alphabet for beginners to read, includes 44 characters based on English letters. Its author - James Pitman, grandson of the inventor of one of the most common systems of shorthand. This alphabet as an aid in the teaching of reading introduced on an experimental basis in some primary schools in England. Here is the sign of one of these schools: Rokseth Priemery Skwl («Roxeth Primary School»). The experimental results have been mixed. Some teachers positively evaluated innovation, while others felt that it was only the children zamorochitsya head.
The idea of ​​an auxiliary alphabet used in China, where the problem is particularly acute spell. In the Chinese writing 50 thousand characters, of which are actively used 5-7 thousand from the XVII century. attempts to introduce the alphabet. In 1958, China adopted a uniform based on the Latin alphabet of 26 letters. It is used in the mail, telegraph, in advertising, educational texts. However, the general shift from hieroglyphics to the new alphabet yet impossible. Chinese integrates multiple dialects so different that people do not understand the people north of the south, and hieroglyphic writing is clear to all literate Chinese! The transition to the new alphabet will only be possible if everywhere in China adopt a single standard language. Another problem is that the rejection of the traditional system of writing require converting to the new system throughout the centuries-old literature of the people.
Still, the transition to the alphabetical letter to the Chinese - an urgent task. Because due to the fact that the master of Chinese writing is very difficult, education is still not available to many. Need to make a letter democratic, and this requires reform. Such reforms have been carried out in Vietnam (1918), North Korea (1947), South Korea (1973). Earlier in these countries use Chinese characters. Now the Vietnamese writing in Latin, and in Korea introduced its own syllabary.
Effective reform of the letter, to limit the use of hieroglyphs, held in Japan in 1946, there have been developed multimodal writing words - hieroglyphics and voice mail. As a result, old books and written language is replaced by a more democratic and modern.
Pushkin once called spelling "heraldry" letters. The more sophisticated, fancy writing, the aristocratic letter. Understand its rules is not easy, it is available only elite that protects secrets from the uninitiated. In contrast, the letter calls for democratic simplicity, clarity. This letter is available to everyone and make knowledge available to all.

WHO IS THE AUTHOR?

H
ome writing was invented, and others - and they are the majority - are the result of a long and gradual evolution. Among the inventions, the so-called copyright scripts - Slavic letter, Armenian, Georgian ...
Armenian alphabet was created, as well as some other writing, and service to translate the Scriptures into their native language. It appeared at the beginning of V century, during the struggle for the Armenian political and spiritual independence from Persia and Byzantium. Armenian alphabet developed by Armenian educator Bishop Mesrop Mashtots (361 - 440). His life and history of the Armenian alphabet devoted to "Life of Mashtots" written Koryun - one of his students.
However, the history of writing is not over. And in today's world, people invent writing. Thus, in the first half of the XIX century. Cherokee Indian Sequoyah, being illiterate (he could not read or write in English, but, of course, knew about the books), came up with a letter to his people. First he created a verbal message, but then had the idea of ​​syllabic writing, borrowing in this form (only the form!) English letters.
At the end of XIX century in Cameroon (West Africa), ruler of the Bamum Ndzhoyya invented Email bamum language - originally as verbal, but then with the elements of an alphabetic syllabary. In Russia verbal letter invented Chukchi shepherd Tenevil, but it was used only his relatives and friends. In the former Soviet Union for many languages ​​have been created based on the literature of the Russian alphabet. Above them, the staff worked linguists.
The invention of the new script - it is a great act of creation, often defining cultural and political development of the people (of course, if this script spread remained). Creators scripts revered, ranking among the saints ... sometimes credited with the honor of creating the alphabet great rulers, although they rarely create anything themselves.
About most of the written not to say that someone had invented. For example, Greek or Chinese writing nobody came up, it was created and perfected over many centuries by many people. Yes, and writing in general, as far as we can judge, was not only the creator, like a wheel, and many other important inventions of mankind.

CONCLUSION

About
equipped with conventional we think about language, but if you want to write the text without errors, or to communicate with foreigners. "Nothing for us, as usual, nothing much just does not seem like our speech and writing - wrote in the XVIII century, Alexander Radishchev - but in the very essence of anything so amazing is how these same speech and writing ..."
The man who thought about the mother tongue, a bit like a fish trying to understand the properties of the water itself. Fish can not live out of water, and one can not be a man outside of language. Native for the human person - about the same as the air for his body. And learn new, unfamiliar language akin to conquering alien elements, which will eventually become an integral part of being an individual ... the language we think, communicate, create, make decisions, and if the non-free breath - a threat to life, the non-free language skills - the threat of identity.
Now just imagine that man is endowed with language, but denied writing. I think everyone knows that without a letter crumbling foundations of education, and without the latter, and the man himself is only a sliver of a weak-willed, forced to wander the waves because you can not count on a productive experience of previous generations. Thus the invention of writing is a necessary step to improve the social organization of a living creature, making it possible to further progress and improvement on the way up from ape to man.