THE
QUARTERLY JOURNAL
OF ECONOMICS
Vol. CXVI
May 2001
Issue 2
THE IMPACT OF LEGALIZED ABORTION ON CRIME*
J
OHN
J. D
ONOHUE
III
AND
S
TEVEN
D. L
EVITT
We offer evidence that legalized abortion has contributed signi cantly to
recent crime reductions. Crime began to fall roughly eighteen years after abortion
legalization. The ve states that allowed abortion in 1970 experienced declines
earlier than the rest of the nation, which legalized in 1973 with Roe v. Wade.
States with high abortion rates in the 1970s and 1980s experienced greater crime
reductions in the 1990s. In high abortion states, only arrests of those born after
abortion legalization fall relative to low abortion states. Legalized abortion ap-
pears to account for as much as 50 percent of the recent drop in crime.
I. I
NTRODUCTION
Since 1991, the United States has experienced the sharpest
drop in murder rates since the end of Prohibition in 1933. Homi-
cide rates have fallen more than 40 percent. Violent crime and
property crime have each declined more than 30 percent. Hun-
dreds of articles discussing this change have appeared in the
academic literature and popular press.
1
They have offered an
array of explanations: the increasing use of incarceration, growth
* We would like to thank Ian Ayres, Gary Becker, Carl Bell, Alfred Blumstein,
Jonathan Caulkins, Richard Craswell, George Fisher, Richard Freeman, James
Heckman, Christine Jolls, Theodore Joyce, Louis Kaplow, Lawrence Katz, John
Kennan, John Monahan, Casey Mulligan, Derek Neal, Eric Posner, Richard
Posner, Sherwin Rosen, Steve Sailer, Jose´ Scheinkman, Peter Siegelman, Kenji
Yoshino, and seminar participants too numerous to mention for helpful comments
and discussions. Craig Estes and Rose Francis provided exceptionally valuable
research assistance. Correspondence can be addressed to either John Donohue,
Crown Quadrangle, Stanford Law School, Stanford, CA 94305, or Steven Levitt,
Department of Economics, University of Chicago, 1126 E. 59th Street, Chicago, IL
60637. Email: jjd@stanford.edu; slevitt@midway.uchicago.edu.
1. For a sampling of the academic literature, see Blumstein and Wallman
[2000] and the articles appearing in the 1998 Summer issue (Volume 88) of the
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, especially Blumstein and Rosenfeld
[1998], Kelling and Bratton [1998], and Donohue [1998]. See Butter eld [1997a,
©
2001 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
The Quarterly Journal of Economics, May 2001
379
in the number of police, improved policing strategies such as
those adopted in New York, declines in the crack cocaine trade,
the strong economy, and increased expenditures on victim pre-
cautions such as security guards and alarms.
None of these factors, however, can provide an entirely sat-
isfactory explanation for the large, widespread, and persistent
drop in crime in the 1990s. Some of these trends, such as the
increasing scale of imprisonment, the rise in police, and expendi-
tures on victim precaution, have been ongoing for over two de-
cades, and thus cannot plausibly explain the recent abrupt im-
provement in crime. Moreover, the widespread nature of the
crime drop argues against explanations such as improved policing
techniques since many cities that have not improved their police
forces (e.g., Los Angeles) have nonetheless seen enormous crime
declines. A similar argument holds for crack cocaine. Many areas
of the country that have never had a pronounced crack trade (for
instance, suburban and rural areas) have nonetheless experi-
enced substantial decreases in crime. Finally, although a strong
economy is super cially consistent with the drop in crime since
1991, previous research has established only a weak link between
economic performance and violent crime [Freeman 1995] and in
one case even suggested that murder rates might vary procycli-
cally [Ruhm 2000].
While acknowledging that all of these factors may have also
served to dampen crime, we consider a novel explanation for the
sudden crime drop of the 1990s: the decision to legalize abortion
over a quarter century ago.
2
The Supreme Court’s 1973 decision
in Roe v. Wade legalizing abortion nationwide potentially ts the
criteria for explaining a large, abrupt, and continuing decrease in
crime. The sheer magnitude of the number of abortions performed
satis es the rst criterion that any shock underlying the recent
drop in crime must be substantial. Seven years after Roe v. Wade,
over 1.6 million abortions were being performed annually—al-
most one abortion for every two live births. Moreover, the legal-
1997b, 1999] for a selection of articles appearing in The New York Times and
Fletcher [2000] for a recent article in The Washington Post.
2. We are unaware of any scholarly article that has examined this effect. We
have recently learned, however, that the former police chief of Minneapolis has
written that abortion is “arguably the only effective crime-prevention device
adopted in this nation since the late 1960s” [Bouza 1990]. In his subsequent 1994
gubernatorial campaign, Bouza was attacked for this opinion [Short 1994]. Im-
mediately after Bouza’s view was publicized just prior to the election, Bouza fell
sharply in the polls.
380
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS
ization of abortion in ve states in 1970, and then for the nation
as a whole in 1973, were abrupt legal developments that might
plausibly have a similarly abrupt in uence 15–20 years later
when the cohorts born in the wake of liberalized abortion would
start reaching their high-crime years. Finally, any in uence of a
change in abortion would impact crime cumulatively as succes-
sive affected cohorts entered into their high-crime late adolescent
years, providing a reason why crime has continued to fall year
after year.
Legalized abortion may lead to reduced crime either through
reductions in cohort sizes or through lower per capita offending
rates for affected cohorts. The smaller cohort that results from
abortion legalization means that when that cohort reaches the
late teens and twenties, there will be fewer young males in their
highest-crime years, and thus less crime. More interesting and
important is the possibility that children born after abortion
legalization may on average have lower subsequent rates of crim-
inality for either of two reasons. First, women who have abortions
are those most at risk to give birth to children who would engage
in criminal activity. Teenagers, unmarried women, and the eco-
nomically disadvantaged are all substantially more likely to seek
abortions [Levine et al. 1996]. Recent studies have found children
born to these mothers to be at higher risk for committing crime in
adolescence [Comanor and Phillips 1999]. Gruber, Levine, and
Staiger [1999], in the paper most similar to ours, document that
the early life circumstances of those children on the margin of
abortion are dif cult along many dimensions: infant mortality,
growing up in a single-parent family, and experiencing poverty.
Second, women may use abortion to optimize the timing of child-
bearing. A given woman’s ability to provide a nurturing environ-
ment to a child can uctuate over time depending on the woman’s
age, education, and income, as well as the presence of a father in
the child’s life, whether the pregnancy is wanted, and any drug or
alcohol abuse both in utero and after the birth. Consequently,
legalized abortion provides a woman the opportunity to delay
childbearing if the current conditions are suboptimal. Even if
lifetime fertility remains constant for all women, children are
born into better environments, and future criminality is likely to
be reduced.
A number of anecdotal empirical facts support the existence
and magnitude of the crime-reducing impact of abortion. First, we
see a broad consistency with the timing of legalization of abortion
381
LEGALIZED ABORTION AND CRIME
and the subsequent drop in crime. For example, the peak ages for
violent crime are roughly 18 –24, and crime starts turning down
around 1992, roughly the time at which the rst cohort born
following Roe v. Wade would hit its criminal prime. Second, as we
later demonstrate, the ve states that legalized abortion in 1970
saw drops in crime before the other 45 states and the District of
Columbia, which did not allow abortions until the Supreme Court
decision in 1973.
Third, our more formal analysis shows that higher rates of
abortion in a state in the 1970s and early 1980s are strongly
linked to lower crime over the period from 1985 to 1997. This
nding is true after controlling for a variety of factors that in u-
ence crime, such as the level of incarceration, the number of
police, and measures of the state’s economic well-being (the un-
employment rate, income per capita, and poverty rate). The esti-
mated magnitude of the impact of legalized abortion on crime is
large. According to our estimates, as shown on Table II, states
with high rates of abortion have experienced roughly a 30 percent
drop in crime relative to low-abortion regions since 1985. While
one must be cautious in extrapolating our results out of sample,
the estimates suggest that legalized abortion can account for
about half the observed decline in crime in the United States
between 1991 and 1997.
A number of factors lead us to believe that the link between
abortion and crime is causal. First, there is no relationship be-
tween abortion rates in the mid-1970s and crime changes be-
tween 1972 and 1985 (prior to the point when the abortion-
affected cohorts have reached the age of signi cant criminal
involvement). Second, virtually all of the abortion-related crime
decrease can be attributed to reductions in crime among the
cohorts born after abortion legalization. There is little change in
crime among older cohorts.
We should emphasize that our goal is to understand why
crime has fallen sharply in the 1990s, and to explore the contri-
bution to this decline that may have come from the legalization of
abortion in the 1970s. In attempting to identify a link between
legalized abortion and crime, we do not mean to suggest that such
a link is “good” or “just,” but rather, merely to show that such a
relationship exists. In short, ours is a purely positive, not a
normative analysis, although of course we recognize that there is
382
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS
an active debate about the moral and ethical implications of
abortion.
3
The structure of the paper is as follows: Section II reviews the
literature and provides a brief history of abortion. Section III
describes how the legalization of abortion can in uence crime
rates by changing the proportion of high-risk children entering
the high-crime late adolescent years, and examines the likely
magnitude of these effects based on past research ndings. Sec-
tion IV presents the basic empirical evidence that supports the
proposed negative relationship between abortion and crime. Sec-
tion V provides evidence that the reduction in crime comes pre-
dominantly from the lower crime rates of those born after the
legalization of abortion. Section VI concludes. A Data Appendix
with the sources of all variables used in the analysis is also
provided.
II. B
RIEF
O
VERVIEW OF THE
H
ISTORY OF
L
EGALIZED
A
BORTION
Under the governing principles of English common law, abor-
tion prior to “quickening” (when the rst movements of the fetus
could be felt, usually around the sixteenth to eighteenth week of
the pregnancy) was lawful. This common law rule was in force
throughout America until the rst law in the United States
restricting abortions was adopted in New York in 1828 [David et
al. 1988, pp. 12–13]. Over the next 60 years, more and more states
followed the lead of New York, and by 1900 abortion was illegal
throughout the country.
The rst modest efforts at abortion liberalization began to
emerge between 1967 and 1970 when a number of states began to
allow abortion under limited circumstances.
4
Legal abortion be-
3. For example, Paulsen [1989, pp. 49, 76–77] considers legalized abortion to
be worse than slavery (since it involves death) and the Holocaust (since the 34
million post-Roe abortions are numerically greater than the six million Jews killed
in Europe). Despite these claims, the Supreme Court has ruled that women have
a fundamental constitutional right of privacy to abort an early-term fetus and that
the state cannot unduly burden this right.
4. The 1962 amendments to the Model Penal Code provided for legal abor-
tions to prevent the death or grave impairment of the physical and mental health
of the woman, or if the fetus would be born with a grave physical or mental defect
or in the case of rape or incest. These provisions were adopted in 1967 in Colorado,
North Carolina, and California, in 1968 in Florida, Georgia, and Maryland, in
1969 in Arkansas, Kansas, New Mexico, and Oregon, and in 1970 in Delaware,
South Carolina, and Virginia—a total of thirteen states. For excellent reviews of
state and federal abortions laws, see Merz, Jackson, and Klerman [1995] and Alan
Guttmacher Institute [1989].
383
LEGALIZED ABORTION AND CRIME
came broadly available in ve states in 1970 when New York,
Washington, Alaska, and Hawaii repealed their antiabortion
laws, and the Supreme Court of California (ruling in late 1969)
held that the state’s law banning abortion was unconstitutional.
Legalized abortion was suddenly extended to the entire United
States on January 22, 1973, with the landmark ruling of the
United States Supreme Court in Roe v. Wade.
The Supreme Court in Roe explicitly considered the conse-
quences of its decision in stating:
The detriment that the State would impose upon the pregnant woman by
denying this choice altogether is apparent. Speci c and direct harm medi-
cally diagnosable even in early pregnancy may be involved. Maternity, or
additional offspring, may force upon the woman a distressful life and future.
Psychological harm may be imminent. Mental and physical health may be
taxed by child care. There is also the distress, for all concerned, associated
with the unwanted child, and there is the problem of bringing a child into a
family already unable, psychologically and otherwise, to care for it.
5
The available data suggest that the number of abortions
increased dramatically following legalization, although there
is little direct evidence on the number of illegal abortions
performed in the 1960s. As Figure I illustrates, the total num-
5. Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 110, 153 (1973).
F
IGURE
I
Total Abortions by Year
Source: Alan Guttmacher Institute [1992].
384
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS
ber of documented abortions rose sharply in the wake of Roe,
from under 750,000 in 1973 (when live births totaled 3.1 mil-
lion) to over 1.6 million in 1980 (when live births totaled 3.6
million).
6
If illegal abortions were already being performed in
equivalent numbers, one would not expect a seven-year lag in
reaching a steady state. Moreover, the costs of an abortion—
nancial and otherwise— dropped considerably after legaliza-
tion. Kaplan [1988, p. 164] notes that “an illegal abortion
before Roe v. Wade cost $400 to $500, while today, thirteen
years after the decision, the now legal procedure can be pro-
cured for as little as $80.”
7
The costs of nding and traveling to
an illegal abortionist and any attendant cost of engaging in
illegal and therefore riskier and socially disapproved conduct
were also reduced by legalization.
Perhaps the most convincing evidence that legalization
increased abortion comes from Michael [1999], who nds abor-
tion rates to be roughly an order of magnitude higher after
legalization using self-reported data on pregnancy outcome
histories. Thus, the rst prerequisite for legalization to have
an impact on crime is met—legalization increased the rate of
abortion.
Consistent with this nding is a dramatic decline in the
number of children put up for adoption after abortion became
legal. According to Stolley [1993], almost 9 percent of premarital
births were placed for adoption before 1973; that number fell to 4
percent for births occurring between 1973 and 1981. The total
number of adoptions rose from 90,000 in 1957 to over 170,000 in
1970; by 1975 adoptions had fallen to 130,000.
6. In our analysis we use Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI) data on abortions.
Although Michael [1999] argues that the AGI may substantially overstate true
abortion rates, “it is generally acknowledged [that AGI data provide] the most
accurate count of induced abortions in the United States.” Apparently, “reporting
is less complete for nonwhites than for whites, and overall reporting . . . has
declined over time” [Joyce and Kaestner 1996, p. 185].
7. The cost to the mother also depends on the availability of public funding,
which was affected by the Hyde Amendment, which cut off federal funding of
abortion for Medicaid recipients. The Hyde Amendment became law on September
30, 1976. The Hyde Amendment has been subject to a series of revisions and
restraining orders since that time. No consensus exists as to the impact of the
Hyde Amendment on the number of abortions or births, although most recent
research suggests any impact is now small [Joyce and Kaestner 1996; Kane and
Staiger 1996].
385
LEGALIZED ABORTION AND CRIME
III. T
HE
M
ECHANISM BY
W
HICH
A
BORTION
L
EGALIZATION
L
OWERS
C
RIME
R
ATES
In this section we explore in detail the theoretical link be-
tween legalization of abortion in the early 1970s and subsequent
drops in crime fteen to twenty years later. We identify a number
of alternative pathways through which abortion can affect crime.
We then generate “back-of-the-envelope” calculations as to the
likely magnitude of the various channels based on previous re-
search ndings.
The simplest way in which legalized abortion reduces crime
is through smaller cohort sizes. When those smaller cohorts reach
the high-crime late adolescent years, there are simply fewer
people to commit crime. Levine et al. [1996] nd that legalization
is associated with roughly a 5 percent drop in birth rates.
8
As-
suming that the fall in births is a random sample of all births,
total crime committed by this cohort would be expected to fall
commensurately.
Far more interesting from our perspective is the possibility
that abortion has a disproportionate effect on the births of those
who are most at risk of engaging in criminal behavior.
9
To the
extent that abortion is more frequent among those parents who
are least willing or able to provide a nurturing home environ-
ment, as a large and growing body of evidence suggests, the
impact of legalized abortion on crime might be far greater than its
effect on fertility rates.
10
This is particularly true given that 6
percent of any birth cohort will commit roughly half the crime
8. This decline is broadly consistent with survey responses by mothers in
1973 who report that approximately 13 percent of lifetime births were unwanted
[Statistical Abstract of the United States 1980, p. 65, table 99]. Note, however,
that the decline in births is far less than the number of abortions, suggesting that
the number of conceptions increased substantially—an example of insurance
leading to moral hazard. The insurance that abortion provides against unwanted
pregnancy induces more sexual conduct or diminished protections against preg-
nancy in a way that substantially increases the number of pregnancies. Another
possible explanation for the gap between abortion rates and fertility rate changes
is that illegal abortion was already suppressing the birth rate by 15–20 percent
and legalization reduced it another 5–10 percent, but this would imply a higher
gure for the number of illegal abortions than we think is likely, as discussed
above.
9. As noted earlier, this effect can occur either because of lower lifetime
fertility rates among high-risk groups, or because women delay childbearing until
conditions are more favorable for successfully raising children.
10. In addition, with an estimated number of over 150,000 rapes in 1973
(often thought to be a conservative estimate), it is possible that 10,000 to 15,000
conceptions occurred that year as a result of rape, and one might expect a
substantial proportion of these high-risk conceptions would end in abortion [Bu-
reau of Justice Statistics 1985, p. 230, Table 3.2].
386
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS
[Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin 1972; Tracy, Wolfgang, and Figlio
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