1st trend is translation history

Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea.
Reformulation or Equivalence - expressing something in a completely different way, for example when translating idioms or advertising slogans.
Adaptation occurs when something specific to one language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language culture. Compensation can be used when something cannot be translated, and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else in the translated text.
Translation transformation techniques are complicated inter-language transferences resulting in the creation of such a text that at full scope reveals the information of original text. The scholars differentiate between lexical, grammatical and stylistic transformations. Divergences in the structures of the two languages are so considerable that in the process of translation various grammatical transformations indispensable to achieve equivalence. These transformations may be classed into four types: 1. transpositions; 2. replacements; 3. additions; 4. omissions.
Lexical transformations are the devices of logical process that reveal the meaning of the lexical unit of the SL that is different in the context from the dictionary one. Types of lexical transformations: differentiation, concretization, generalization, logical development, antonymic translation, general reinterpretation, compensation.
Stylistic means possess a distinct national character although at first sight they may appear to be identical. Stylistic equivalence may be achieved by different means and not necessary by the same device.


3. Transformation technique in the process of translation
Translation transformation techniques are complicated inter-language transferences resulting in the creation of such a text that at full scope reveals the information of original text. The problem of transformation techniques is thoroughly elaborated by contemporary scholars. The scholars differentiate between lexical, grammatical and stylistic transformations. The transformations are differentiated only in the theory, but really they are intermingled.
Divergences in the structures of the two languages are so considerable that in the process of translation various grammatical transformations indispensable to achieve equivalence. These transformations may be classed into four types: 1. transpositions; 2. replacements; 3. additions; 4. omissions.
Language systems of meaning are also different. Any language is able to describe things, notions, phenomena and facts of life. This ability of language ensures cognition of the outside world. But the ways of expressing these things and notions usually vary in different languages. Lexical transformations are the devices of logical process that reveal the meaning of the lexical unit of the SL that is different in the context from the dictionary one. Types of lexical transformations: differentiation, concretization, generalization, logical development, antonymic translation, general reinterpretation, compensation.
Stylistic means and devices present considerable and varied problems for translation. They possess a distinct national character although at first sight they may appear to be identical. The translator must be fully aware of the function of a stylistic device and its effect, to be able to reproduce the same effect by other means, if necessary, thus minimizing the inevitable losses due to inherent divergences. Stylistic equivalence may be achieved by different means and not necessary by the same device.


4. The definition and classification of translations
Barchudarov’s definition:
Translation is a process of substitution of the text, message or utterance in the source language by the text, message or utterance in the target language provided that the contents of the text, message or utterance remained unchanged and the norms of the target language are not violated.
In practice, there is considerable variation in the types of translations produced by translators.
Translation is carried on the level of speech and any language exists in its oral and written forms. Dependent upon the form the SL and the TL are used the following forms of translation are distinguished: oral and written. Written translation is when both languages – SL and TL are used in their form. It can be literary or specific, depending on its content. Oral translation is when both languages are used in their oral forms. There exist two subforms of oral translation: consecutive (the interpreter listens to a speech and takes notes as it goes on, when the speech stops he renders the speaker’s speech) and simultaneous (the interpreter sits in a small sound-proof booth, as the speech goes on, he rapidly injects the translation, one or two sentences at a time into the mouthpiece of a telephone).
R. Jakobson in his semiotic approach distinguishes three types of translation: intra-lingual or rewording (reinterpretation of verbal signs with the help of other signs of the same language), inter-lingual or translation proper (reinterpretation of verbal signs of one language with the help of the signs of other language), inter-semiotic or transmutation (reinterpretation of verbal signs by other signs of non-verbal system.
There is also some variation depending on the purpose of a given translation. The following three types of translation can be distinguished: equivalent, adequate, literal and free translation.
Adequate translation is the translation performed on the level sufficient and necessary to convey the information and preserve the norms of the TL, while equivalent translation is one that has a constant correspondence that exist independently upon the context. Thus, we may state that adequate translation may be non-equivalent and equivalent translation can be inadequate.
Literal or word translation is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide.
Free translation is a special type of translation used as a rule in annotations, précis, abstracts. Free translation is rendering of meaning regardless of form. The aim of such translation is to convey information to people in other countries in a most compact and condensed manner.


5. Causes of lexical and grammatical transformations
Translation transformations are complicated inter-language transferences resulting in the creation of such a text that at full scope reveals the information of original text. The scholars differentiate between lexical, grammatical and stylistic transformations.
Grammatical transformations in the process of translation are accounted for one main reason: the divergences in the structure of the two languages.
While lexical transformations are caused by a number of interrelated factors:
1. The peculiarity of word semantic structures in different languages. A word may be more widely used in one language, while in another it may have a narrow or even terminological meaning. Besides, all the words are subdivided into stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured. The choice of one of the meanings of a word depends merely upon the environment of a given word. And it is often the context that makes the translator choose the right correspondence in the TL, either stylistically marked or unmarked.
2. The choice of the correspondence may depend upon different connotations of a word. It adds to the primary meaning all those ideas and emotions which human experience has attached to the original meaning. E.g. tiger: primary meaning – a large beast animal, connotation – the cunning and swiftness of the cat combined with enormous strength and pitiless ferocity.
3. Polysemy. E.g. keen wind – резкий ветер, keen joy – большая радость, keen sportsman – страстный спортсмен, keen wit – острый ум. In case of polysemy everything depends upon the environment of the word which usually motivates the meaning of the word.
4. Valency – the potential capacity of words to occur with other words. E.g. to win a victory, to gain a victory; to win a war, no equivalent. It is important to note that the valency of words take place only in the case of compatibility of the notions denoted by these words. This compatibility may be different in various languages. As a rule, one of the combined words semantically coincide and is preserved in translation, while other id translated by a word having another lexical meaning, but the same function, e.g. heavy rain – (тяжелый) сильный дождь, strong tea – (сильный) крепкий чай.
6. Types of transformations: lexical, grammatical, stylistic
Translation transformations are complicated inter-language transferences resulting in the creation of such a text that at full scope reveals the information of original text. The problem of transformation techniques is thoroughly elaborated by contemporary scholars. The scholars differentiate between lexical, grammatical and stylistic transformations. The transformations are differentiated only in the theory, but really they are intermingled.
Divergences in the structures of the two languages are so considerable that in the process of translation various grammatical transformations indispensable to achieve equivalence. These transformations may be classed into four types: 1. transpositions; 2. replacements; 3. additions; 4. omissions.
Language systems of meaning are also different. Any language is able to describe things, notions, phenomena and facts of life. This ability of language ensures cognition of the outside world. But the ways of expressing these things and notions usually vary in different languages. Lexical transformations are the devices of logical process that reveal the meaning of the lexical unit of the SL that is different in the context from the dictionary one. Types of lexical transformations: differentiation, concretization, generalization, logical development, antonymic translation, general reinterpretation, compensation.
Stylistic means and devices present considerable and varied problems for translation. They possess a distinct national character although at first sight they may appear to be identical. The translator must be fully aware of the function of a stylistic device and its effect, to be able to reproduce the same effect by other means, if necessary, thus minimizing the inevitable losses due to inherent divergences. Stylistic equivalence may be achieved by different means and not necessary by the same device.


7. Adequacy in translation