Questions 79–84 are based on the following reading passage.
Subatomic particles can be divided into two classes: fermions and
bosons, terms coined
by physicist Paul Dirac in honor of his peers Enrico Fermi and Satyendra
Bose. Fermions, which
include electrons, protons, and neutrons, obey the Pauli exclusion
principle, according to which
no two particles can inhabit the same fundamental state. For example,
electrons cannot circle the
5 nuclei of atoms in precisely the same orbits, loosely speaking, and
thus must occupy more and
more distant locations, like a crowd filling seats in a stadium. The
constituents of ordinary matter
are fermions; indeed, the fact that fermions are in some sense mutually
exclusive is the most
salient reason why two things composed of ordinary matter cannot be in
the same place at the
same time.
10 Conversely, bosons, which include photons (particles of light) and
the hitherto elusive Higgs
boson, do not obey the Pauli principle and in fact tend to bunch together
in exactly the same
fundamental state, as in lasers, in which each photon proceeds in perfect
lockstep with all the
others. Interestingly, the seemingly stark division between fermionic and
bosonic behavior can
be bridged. All particles possess “spin,” a characteristic vaguely
analogous to that of a spinning
15 ball; boson spins are measured in integers, such as 0 and 1, while
fermion spins are always half-
integral, such as ½ and 1½. As a result, whenever an even number of
fermions group together, that
group of fermions, with its whole-number total spin, effectively becomes
a giant boson. Within
certain metals chilled to near absolute zero, for instance, so-called
Cooper pairs of electrons form;
these pairs flow in precise harmony and with zero resistance through the
metal, which is thus said
20 to have achieved a superconductive condition. Similarly, helium-4
atoms (composed of
2 electrons, 2 protons, and 2 neutrons) can collectively display boson-
like activity when cooled to a superfluid
state. A swirl in a cup of superfluid helium will, amazingly, never
dissipate.
The observation that even-numbered groups of fermions can behave
like bosons raises the
corollary question of whether groups of bosons can ever exhibit
fermionic characteristics. Some
25 scientists argue for the existence of skyrmions (after the theorist Tony
Skyrme who first described
the behavior of these hypothetical fermion-like groups of bosons) in
superconductors and other
condensed-matter environments, where twists in the structure of the
medium might
permit skyrmions to form.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
79. The example of “a crowd filling seats in a stadium” (line 6) is intended to
expand upon one consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle
illustrate a behavior of certain fermions
describe how electrons circle the nuclei of atoms in concentric,
evenly spaced orbits
80. The author’s primary purpose in writing this passage is to
(A)
explain the mechanism by which fermions can become bosons
(B)
describe the two classes of subatomic particles
(C)
provide examples of the different forms of matter
(D)
explain the concept of particle “spin”
(E)
argue that most matter is composed of one type of particle
81. Which of the following is not mentioned as a characteristic of bosons?
(A)
They can be composed of groups of fermions.
(B)
They are measured in integer spin.
(C)
They are the constituents of ordinary matter.
(D)
They tend to bunch together in the same fundamental state.
(E)
They lead to phenomena such as superconductors and superfluids.
82. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
(A)
An atom composed of two protons and a neutron would be
considered a boson.
(B)
Skyrmions have been discovered in superconductors and other
condensed matter environments.
(C)
Two electrons in an atom cannot circle the same nucleus at exactly
the same distance.
(D)
A current through a superconducting wire will never dissipate.
(E)
Fermions cannot behave as bosons unless they are cooled to a
temperature near absolute zero.
83. According to the passage, which of the following describes a difference
between fermions and bosons?
(A)
Fermions cannot inhabit the same fundamental state, whereas
bosons bunch together in the same state.
(B)
Fermions contain many more types of particles than bosons.
(C)
Fermions exist in groups, but bosons do not.
(D)
Fermions have integral spin values, whereas Bosons have half-
integer spin.
(E)
Fermions do not obey the Pauli principle, whereas bosons do.
84. Based on the information in the passage about the Pauli exclusion
principle, to which one of the following situations would this principle be
most relevant?
(A)
Fermi Energy: The maximum energy that electrons in a solid will
contain in order to avoid having identical energy levels
(B)
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