Figure 13: Monthly averages of volumes traded of the Light Sweet Crude Oil Futures Contract
Source: CME Group
0
2000000
4000000
6000000
8000000
10000000
12000000
14000000
16000000
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
56
Unlike the Brent futures contract (where delivery is elective via the EFP mechanism), the Light Sweet
Crude Oil Futures contract is fully physically delivered for every contract left open at expiry by default.
It specifies 1,000 barrels of WTI to be delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma. The contract also allows the
delivery of domestic types of crude (Low Sweet Mix, New Mexican Sweet, North Texas Sweet,
Oklahoma Sweet, and South Texas Sweet) and foreign types of crude (Brent Blend, Nigerian Bonny
Light and Qua Iboe Norwegian Oseberg Blend and Colombian Cusiana) against the futures contract. It is
important to note though that only a small percentage of the volume traded is physically settled with most
of the physical settlement occurring through the EFP mechanism. EFP provides a more flexible way to
arrange physical delivery as it allows traders to agree on the location, grade type, and the trading partner.
Crude oil futures contracts are traded for up to nine years forward. However, liquidity tends to decline
sharply for far away contracts (see Figure 14). For instance, on October 19, 2010 the bulk of the trading
activity concentrated on the December 2010 contract. There is some liquidity up to one year ahead, but as
we move towards the back end of the futures curve, liquidity tends to decline sharply. For instance, on
October 19, 2010, the traded volume of December 2017 and December 2018 contracts stood at 33 and 4
contracts respectively.
Figure 14:Liquidity at Different Segments of the Futures Curve (October 19, 2010)
Source: CME Group Website
In addition to the futures and option contracts, a group of OTC financial instruments link to the WTI
complex, allowing participants to use more customised instruments than those available in the futures
market. As discussed in the case of Brent, a large fraction of OTC deals linked to WTI are using the
clearing facilities of the CME Group or ICE. The CME group lists more than 90 OTC financial contracts
for crude oil that are cleared on its exchange. Contracts such as the WTI-Brent (ICE) Calendar Swap
Futures and the WTI Calendar Swap Futures are more customised and are traded OTC but cleared
through the exchange.
The Price Discovery Process in the US Market
Unlike the Brent market, trading in the US pipeline market is of smaller volumes typically around 30,000
barrels compared to 600,000 barrels in the Brent market. Trade in small volumes has increased the
diversity and number of players who find it easier to obtain the necessary credit and storage facilities to
participate in the US market. Furthermore, the US market has maintained its liquidity despite the decline
460127
20991
4
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
500000
N
o
v
-1
0
F
eb
-1
1
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ay
-1
1
A
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g
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57
in physical production and consolidation within the industry. In 2009, the combined spot-market traded
volume for twelve US domestic grades (for the month of April) stood at more than 1.8 mb/d
77
(see Figure
15) which is much higher than other benchmarks including BFOE, Oman and Dubai.
Figure 15: Spot Market Traded Volumes (b/d) (April 2009 Trade Month)
Source: Argus (2009), „Argus US Crude Prices Explained‟, 24 September
Most of those crudes imported into the US and sold in the spot market are linked to WTI with some
exceptions such as Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia‟s sales to the US which are linked to ASCI; some
imports from West Africa and the North Sea which are linked to Dated Brent; and some Canadian East
Coast crudes which also link to Dated Brent. While producers still use the „assessed‟ prices of WTI in
their pricing formula, those assessments are often made as a differential to the settlement price in the
futures market. In other words, it is the futures market that sets the price level while „assessed‟ prices by
oil price reporting agencies set the differentials.
The physical delivery mechanisms complicate the price assessment process. In the futures market, trading
in the current delivery month expires on the third business day prior to the twenty-fifth calendar day of
the month preceding the delivery month. For instance, the March WTI futures contract expires on the 22
nd
of February. Under the terms of the futures contract, delivery should be made at any pipeline or storage
facility in Cushing, Oklahoma and must take place no earlier than the first calendar day of the delivery
month (March) and no later than the last calendar day of the delivery month (March). At expiration, three
business days are needed for pipeline scheduling to organise the physical delivery in March. The three-
day window between the expiration of the monthly NYMEX WTI contract and the deadline for
completing the shipping arrangements (i.e. between the 22
nd
and 25
th
of February in our example) is
known as the roll period. During this period, the March WTI futures contract has already expired while
the spot (physical) month is still March.
78
To derive the spot price of WTI March, PRAs assess the cash
roll which is the cost of rolling a contract forward into the next month without delivering on it. This
transaction can also simply be a purchase/sale of current month supply valued at an EFP to next month
futures. On the 26
th
of February, the physical front month becomes April which can then be linked to the
April WTI futures contract.
77
Argus (2009), “Argus US Crude Prices Explained”, 24 September.
78
In our example, the physical month extends in our example from 26
th
January through February 25
th
.
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
450,000
58
Historically, a large number of independent producers used to sell their crude oil to gatherers based on
WTI posting plus (P-Plus), which is the sum of the wellhead posted prices plus delivery costs into
Cushing. Nowadays the P-Plus market is widely used with its sister market, the differential to Nymex
Calendar Monthly Average (CMA) market. The P-Plus market used the Koch posting only as a basis up
until about 3 years ago when Koch stopped publishing that. Now companies tend to transact versus the
ConocoPhillips posting. The value that the differential to Postings (P-Plus) represents is the value for
delivery into Cushing in the current calendar month, assuming a certain cost to move the barrels to
Cushing. ConocoPhillips is known to use the Nymex settlement price, adjusted by the cost of moving the
barrel to Cushing, to set the price of the posting. This way the CMA and P-Plus markets are
mathematically connected and never too far out of synchronisation. The CMA market has been gaining
liquidity and is increasingly being used to value prompt crude oil in the US. It is the most active market in
terms of volumes of spot trade as seen from Figure 15. It is important to note that CMA is an extension to
the futures market. The CMA market does not trade price levels, but often trades at a differential to the
WTI futures contract settlement price. CMA and P-Plus have replaced the WTI Cash Window.
79
Platts uses its window to assess WTI differential to CMA and other domestic crudes. While the CMA
market is quite liquid with large and diverse number of players, the percentage of transactions in the
Platts‟ window is only a small fraction of total transactions during the day.
80
In June 2007 for instance,
total window trade amounted only to 4% of entire day trade observed by Argus. For all US crudes, total
window trade amounted to 2.4% of all spot trade.
81
Some crude streams such as Mars show 19 days of no
trade in June 2007 and prices were assessed based on bids and offers.
82
Furthermore, despite the diversity
of players in the market, the degree of concentration in the window is quite high with a few players
dominating the trading activity.
83
Given these concerns and the fact the CMA is priced as a differential to
the price in the futures market, it is surprising that producers do not more widely use futures prices
directly into their pricing formula.
84
The WTI futures contract is a physical one and the price of the
futures contract converges to the spot price at the expiration of the contract. Hence, in the case of WTI,
the use of the futures price instead of assessed prices in the pricing formulae would make little difference.
The depth and the high liquidity of the futures market surrounding WTI and the diversity of its market
participants should incentivise buyers and sellers to use the futures price in their formula pricing. In
practice, there is some evidence that the front-month WTI futures price can exhibit high volatility around
the expiry date in some instances, which may partly explain the preference of some traders to stick to
assessed WTI prices. Furthermore, both the P-Plus and CMA are means of valuing WTI that is one month
prompter than the promptest futures contract.
WTI: The Broken Benchmark?
It has been recognised that the links between the WTI benchmark and oil prices in international markets
can be at times dictated by infrastructure logistics. In the past, the main logistical bottleneck has been how
to get enough oil into Cushing, Oklahoma. In many instances, this resulted in dislocations with WTI
rising to high levels compared to other international benchmarks such as Brent. The problem has recently
been reversed. While the ability to get oil into Cushing has increased mainly through higher Canadian
imports, the ability to shift this oil out of the region and to provide a relief valve for Cushing is much
more constrained as the storing in Cushing is inaccessible by tanker or barges with few out-flowing
79
The WTI Cash Window, which was/is a Platts mechanism for setting the price of WTI at 3:15 EST after the close
of the Nymex at 2:30 EST, has not traded for about 3 years. It is no longer an operative index because very few
companies use it for price reference.
80
Argus Global Markets (2007), “Liquidity and Diversity Prevail”, 24 September.
81
Argus, “State of the Market Report: US Domestic Crude”, Argus White Paper.
82
Ibid.
83
Ibid.
84
It is important to note though that many companies do use the NYMEX settlement as a pricing index.
59
pipelines, especially southbound towards the US Gulf major refining centre. In some occasions, this has
led to a larger than expected build-up of crude oil inventories in Cushing. For instance, in 2007, due to
logistical bottlenecks, there was a large build-up of inventories as a result of which the WTI price
disconnected not only from the rest of the world, but also from other US regions. In 2008, the build-up of
inventories in Cushing due to a deep contango and reduction in demand induced by the credit crunch
caused a major dislocation of WTI from the rest of the world.
Given the major role that WTI plays in the pricing of US domestic crude, imported oil into the US and
global financial markets, the price effects of such logistical bottlenecks are widespread. First, dislocations
result in wide time spreads as reflected in the large differential between nearby contracts and further away
contracts as seen in Figure 16 below. For instance, in January 2009, the spread between a twelve-week
ahead contract and prompt WTI reached close to $8 with implications on inventory accumulation.
Figure 16: Spread between WTI 12-weeks Ahead and prompt WTI ($/Barrel)
Source: Oil Market Intelligence
Dislocations also have the effect of decoupling the price of WTI from that of Brent, as reflected in the
large price differential between the two international benchmarks (see Figure 17). For instance, in
February 2009, the differential exceeded the $8/barrel mark. Similar episodes occurred in May and June
of 2007. Such behaviour in price differentials however does not imply that the WTI market is not
reflecting fundamentals. On the contrary, price movements are efficiently reflecting the local supply-
demand conditions in Cushing, Oklahoma. The main problem is that when local conditions become
dominant, the WTI price can no longer reflect the supply-demand balance in the US or in the world and
thus no longer acts as a useful international benchmark for pricing crude oil for the rest of the world. It
has also become less useful as a means of pricing crude in other US regions such as the Gulf coast.
-6.00
-4.00
-2.00
...
+2.00
+4.00
+6.00
+8.00
+10.00
Jan
0
1
M
ay
0
1
S
ep
0
1
Jan
0
2
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ay
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ep
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ay
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ep
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ep
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ay
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ep
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ay
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ep
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ay
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ep
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0
8
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ay
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ep
0
8
Jan
0
9
M
ay
0
9
S
ep
0
9
Jan
1
0
60
Figure 17: WTI-BRENT Price Differential ($/Barrel)
Source: Petroleum Intelligence Weekly
Most Latin American producers
85
and until recently also some Middle East producers used WTI in their
pricing formula in long-term contracts. In 2010, Saudi Arabia decided to shift to an alternative index
known as the Argus Sour Crude Index (ASCI) for its US sales. Kuwait and Iraq soon followed suit. ASCI
is calculated on the basis of trade in three U.S. Gulf of Mexico grades: Mars, Poseidon and Southern
Green Canyon. Unlike WTI and LLS which are sweet and light, the ASCI benchmark is a medium sour
index. These sour crudes also do not seem to suffer from infrastructure problems and the occasional
logistic bottlenecks that affect WTI, although disruptions could take place as they exposed to potential
hurricanes, as Hurricanes Rita and Ivan illustrated. Their physical bases have benefited from the increased
production in the Gulf of Mexico and as a result the volume of spot trade in the underlying crudes is
sizeable. It is important to note that like other local US benchmarks, ASCI is linked to WTI and currently
trades as differential to WTI. In a way, the „WTI Nymex price is the fixed price basis for the index‟ and
thus ASCI is not intended „to replace WTI as fixed price but instead works in conjunction with other
markets to provide a tool for valuing sour crude at the Gulf Coast‟ (Argus, 2010:3). This explains why
newly listed derivatives instruments such as futures, options and over the counter (OTC) around ASCI did
not gain any liquidity as most of the hedging can be done using the WTI contract.
86
85
Mexico‟s formula for sales to the USA is much more complex. It may include the price of more than one
reference crude (WTI, ANS, West Texas Sour (WTS), Light Louisiana Sweet (LLS), Dated Brent and may be linked
to fuel prices.
86
Another potential reason as to why ASCI OTC has not gained volume is because the users of the
Saudi/Kuwaiti/Iraqi crude are also often producers of the ASCI grades and as such they are internally hedged
through their own activities.
-9.00
-7.00
-5.00
-3.00
-1.00
+1.00
+3.00
+5.00
+7.00
+9.00
61
7. The Dubai-Oman Market
Currently most cargoes from the Gulf to Asia are priced against Dubai or Oman or combination of these
crudes where around 13.1 mb/d or 94% of Gulf exports destined to Asia are priced of Platts‟ assessment
of Dubai/Oman (Leaver, 2010). With oil starting to flow from East Siberia to Asia in 2009 through the
East Siberia-Pacific Ocean Pipeline (ESPO), one could argue that Dubai‟s role has now expanded into
Russia, as ESPO currently trades as a differential to Dubai. Dubai became the main price marker for the
Gulf region by default in the mid 1980s when it was one of the few Gulf crudes available for sale on the
spot market. Also unlike other countries in the Gulf such as Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, until very
recently Dubai allowed oil companies to own equity in Dubai production. Up until April 2007, the major
producing offshore oil fields of Fateh, SouthWest Fateh, Rashid, and Falah were operated by the Dubai
Petroleum Company (DPC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Conoco-Phillips. DPC acted on the behalf of
the DPC/Dubai Marine Areas Limited, a consortium comprised of Conoco-Phillips (32.65%), Total
(27.5%), Repsol YPF (25%), RWE Dea (10%), and Wintershall (5%). In April 2007, the concession was
passed on to a new company, the Dubai Petroleum Establishment (DPE), a 100% government owned
company while the operations of the offshore fields were passed to Petrofac which acts on the behalf of
DPE. The Dubai market emerged around 1984 when the spot trade in Arabian Light declined and then
ceased to exist. When the Dubai market first emerged, few trading companies participated in this market
with little volume of trading taking place. This however changed during the period 1985-1987 when many
Japanese trading houses and Wall Street refiners started entering the market. The major impetus came in
1988 when key OPEC countries abandoned the administered pricing system and started pricing their
crude export to Asia on the basis of the Dubai crude. Over a short period of time, Dubai became
responsible for pricing millions of barrels on a daily basis and the Dubai market became known as the
„Brent of the East‟ (Horsnell and Mabro, 1993).
Dubai is not the only benchmark used for pricing cargoes in or destined to Asia-Pacific. Malaysia and
Indonesia set their own official selling prices. Malaysia‟s sales are set on a monthly-average of price
assessments by panel Asia Petroleum Price Index (APPI) plus P-Factor premium which is determined by
the national oil company Petronas. Indonesia sells its cargoes on the basis of the Indonesian Crude Price
(ICP) which is based on a monthly average of daily spot price assessments. While some cargoes are
priced as a differential to Indonesian Minas and Malaysian Tapis, these benchmarks have fallen in favour
with Asian traders. Since APPI and ICP are often used to price sweet crudes, trading against Dated Brent
for sweet crudes has been on the increase in Asia, a trend which is likely to consolidate as the physical
liquidity of the key Asian benchmarks Tapis and Minas continues to decline. This should be of concern to
producers and consumers as the Dated Brent benchmark may not necessarily be fully reflective of
supply/demand fundamentals in East of Suez markets. Abu Dhabi, Qatar and Oman also set their own
official selling prices. The former two countries set their OSP retroactively. For instance, the OSP
announced in October refers to cargoes that have already been loaded in September. To reflect more
accurately market conditions, spot cargoes traded in October or November are often traded as differentials
to OSP. Dubai and Oman shifted from a retroactive pricing system to a forward pricing system based on
the DME Oman Futures contract. The pricing off the DME contract however still comprise only a small
percentage of Gulf crude exports to Asia.
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