Energies
2022
,
15
, 7804
10 of 24
their toxicity index unchanged with time, as the toxicants do not eventually vanish, unlike
radionuclides [23].
3.2. Retention Times of Disposal
The necessary time for the isolated retention of nuclear waste in a storage (VSLW) or
a disposal facility (LLW, ILW, HLW) is calculated based on the requirement for its final
clearance from regulatory control, which means that the level of radionuclides content has
been below the clearance levels. Clearance of radioactive waste, which contains a total of
N radionuclides of artificial origin, is allowed at times t when the sum of the individual
radionuclide activity concentrations
A
i
(t)
divided by clearance levels
CL
i
is less than unity
[1].
Due to radioactive decay, the activity concentrations decrease with time
A
i
(t)
=
A
i
exp
(−λ
i
t)
, where
λ
i
is the radionuclide decay constant,
i
= 1, …,
N
. Therefore, the retention
time required tret can be found from the equation:
exp (−
)
= 1
(3)
where
CL
i
are activity concentration levels for the clearance of bulk solid materials, see,
e.g., Table I.2 of Ref. [1]. The free (or unconditional) release of radionuclides at concentra-
tions
CL
i
can only cause a dose burden to a population of 10 μSv/a or less, which is hun-
dreds of times less compared to natural
background levels of radiation, being globally
averaged as
2400 μSv/a. As most of the scenarios describing the action of radiation on
humans are linearly dependent on
A
i
(t)
(see Chapter 5.3 of [23]), the expected dose burden
D
exp
from the release of small amounts of radionuclides
can be thus assessed as
D
exp
=
10·[
A
i
(t)/CL
i
] μSv/a.
When the time exceeds the retention time set by this equation (
t > t
ret
), the nuclear
waste becomes conventionally non-nuclear waste because the concentrations of nuclear
waste radionuclides are all below the clearance levels. Calculations can be performed in
each specific case. However, from equation (3), an assessment of minimal retention time
t
ret
(years) for a mono-radionuclide (N = 1) is:
= 1.44
/
ln (
)
(4)
where
T
1/2
is the half-life of radionuclide (years),
A
is the initial concentration of radionu-
clide in the waste (Bq/g), and
CL
is the activity concentration level for the clearance of bulk
solid materials containing that radionuclide.
From equations (3) and (4), it follows that higher activity (higher A
i
) and longer-lived
(smaller
λ
i
and thus larger
T
1/2
,i
= 0.693/
λ
i
) nuclear wastes have a longer retention time and
hence require a greater degree of isolation. Specifically, the so-called minor actinide (MA)
fraction of HLW is of particular concern for disposal because the half-lives of MA are
longer than the period over which the engineered containment features will be effective.
The greatest concern is caused by
long-lived actinides Np, Pu, Am, Cm, and their daugh-
ter products [24–26]. Of particular concern is
241
Am (
T
½
= 432 years), which decays, form-
ing
237
Np with a half-life of 2.1 million years. As an illustration of typical times specific for
different waste streams, one can consider the data of Table 2, with examples of
typical
short-lived and long-lived radionuclides present in the nuclear waste of an operating
NPP.
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