Energies
2022
,
15
, 7804
5 of 24
LLW covers a very broad range of waste with long-lived radionuclides only at rela-
tively low levels of activity concentration. LLW is generated in most facilities in-
volved
in nuclear power production, nuclear research, and nuclear medicine. It is
common practice to dispose of LLW in NSDFs, although options for the disposal of
LLW include simplified facilities such as engineered trenches or concrete vaults in
which waste containers are placed. An engineered or earthen cap is then placed over
the waste containers to minimise water infiltration. The NSDFs are subject to surveil-
lance until the hazard associated with the nuclear waste has declined to acceptable
(e.g., clearance) levels. Some countries prefer disposing of
LLW in sub-surface facili-
ties or co-locating LLW with ILW or spent nuclear fuel (SNF) in deeper facilities;
ILW is radioactive waste that requires a greater degree of containment and isolation
than that provided by NSDFs although it needs no provision for radiogenic heat dis-
sipation. The ILW requires disposal at greater depths, of the order of from tens of
metres to at one or even a few hundred metres. Moreover,
disposal at depths of
greater than several tens of metres is generally considered to be the most appropriate
option for ILW. Co-disposal of ILW with SNF and HLW is an effective option con-
sidered in many countries. A precise boundary between LLW and ILW does not ex-
ists although a limit content of 400 Bq/g on average and up to 4000 Bq/g for individual
packages for long-lived alpha emitting radionuclides has been adopted in many
countries following the recommendation of IAEA [16]. The actual boundary-limiting
levels result in each specific case from the performance and safety analysis reports
and cannot be generic to all facilities. For long-lived beta- and/or gamma-emitting
radionuclides, e.g.,
14
C,
36
Cl,
63
Ni,
93
Zr,
94
Nb,
99
Tc, and
129
I, the allowable average ac-
tivity concentrations may be considerably higher (up to tens of kBq/g) although they
are always specific to the site and disposal facility [16];
HLW is radioactive waste with levels of activity concentration high enough to require
shielding in handling operations and that generates significant quantities of radio-
genic heat due to the decay of nuclear waste radionuclides. Depending on the volume
of waste, the heat generation levels of HLW are typically above a few W/m
3
for typi-
cal volumes of about one cubic metre. HLW can also
be nuclear waste with large
amounts of long-lived radionuclides that need to be considered in the design of dis-
posal facilities. Disposal in deep geological disposal facilities (GDF) located in stable
geological formations, usually several hundred metres or more below the surface, is
the generally recognised HLW disposal option. While most countries with spent fuel
and HLW are working towards national solutions, others, for mainly economic rea-
sons, have indicated an interest in developing multinational disposal facilities [13].
2.2. IAEA Selection Tool
Altogether, it can be clearly seen that the IAEA classification does directly link classes
of radioactive wastes with disposal routes. Moreover, the IAEA gives a logic diagram for
selecting the disposal option
based on classification, as explained in Figure 3.