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although it can be under the surveillance of many other kinds of regulations and controls,
depending on the situation. Correspondingly, waste that is produced by activities involv-
ing conventionally non-radioactive materials is considered non-radioactive.
1.2. Consensus on Disposal
There is global consensus of all countries that use nuclear energy to a larger or smaller
degree that the only final safe solution (end point) for the long-term management of nu-
clear waste is through disposal. Disposal is the emplacement of waste in an appropriate
facility without the intention to retrieve it, as specified by refs. [1–6]. Disposal is also re-
garded as an almost complete removal of dangerous materials out of any biological cycles
(biosphere). Proposals such as the disposal of nuclear waste into outer space or in subduc-
tion zones currently look unrealistic [7,8] whereas the disposal into stable geological for-
mations is well-elaborated. Thus, all efforts are directed to organising the disposal in such
a way that even in the very far (remote) future the probability of any
interference of radi-
onuclides with the biosphere is practically absent or minimised to a negligible degree if
potentially envisaged. Generally, the disposal is applied to wastes in a solid form placed
in suitable containers. Moreover, the waste may be (and usually is) first immobilised in a
durable wasteform. This facilitates safe handling, storage, and disposal and constitutes a
part of a multi-barrier approach, which can include the engineered disposal configuration
and geological environment, with the aim of minimising any risk of migration of radio-
nuclides within the biosphere. Some countries also use the term disposal to include dis-
charges of limited amounts of effluents to the environment.
The selection of a disposal option depends on many factors, both technical—such as
waste
characteristics and inventory; and administrative—such as the radioactive waste
management policy, overall disposal strategy of waste management in the country, na-
tional legislative and regulatory requirements, political decisions and social acceptance,
and natural conditions of the country, such as climatic conditions, site characteristics, and
the availability of suitable host media [9–11].
1.3. Aims of Disposal
The disposal facilities aim to prevent or reduce to the minimum the interaction be-
tween the environment and the waste and, most importantly, between the natural waters
and the wasteform. There are many
ways of doing this, such as via a proper choice of:
(a)
Site (such as using an arid region or unsaturated, mountainous site, etc.);
(b)
Emplacement depth (near-surface, above/below grade,
intermediate depth, deep ge-
ological);
(c)
Use of water-resistant caps (runoff drainage layer, clay barrier);
(d)
Long-lived containment (borehole disposal), etc.
A primary issue is also the protection of inadvertent human intrusion and the degree
to which a combination of depth of disposal,
institutional controls, and engineered barri-
ers can be relied upon to prevent or minimise this exposure scenario [12].
Decisions on disposal technology selection typically follow a graded approach with
the following main three principles used [10]:
I.
Nuclear wastes are disposed of using the simplest
disposal concept available, which
is consistent with the hazards of waste and for which safety and environmental pro-
tection can be demonstrated.
II.
The most hazardous wastes are disposed using greater levels of engineering to pro-
vide for increased containment and/or are disposed of at greater possible depth to
increase isolation from the surface environment.
III.
Where existing disposal facilities are available, consideration is given to first using
them before developing new disposal facilities.
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1.4. Disposal as End Point of Management
Nuclear waste management (NWM) comprises all administrative and operational ac-
tivities involved in the handling, pre-treatment, treatment, conditioning, transport, stor-
age, and disposal of radioactive waste (Figure 1).
(
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