Introduction to information systems T. Cornford, M. Shaikh is1 060 2013

what
?, 
who
? and 
why
? and then 
how
?; and finally, the consequences that 
follow (the
 so what
?). These might include consequences for people (for 
example, at work or at home); for organisations (for example, firms and 
businesses, not-for-profit organisations and government bodies); and for 
wider society (for example, for social and economic development or for 
international patterns of trade).
When we do talk about computers and associated technologies we will 
generally use the phrase ‘information and communication technology’ 
(ICT). You will find that ICT is a common abbreviation in the academic 
world, and particularly in Europe. The other and older abbreviation is ‘IT’ 
standing for information technology. One of the earliest uses of this phrase 
is in a 1958 article by Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whistler listed 
under Background reading below. Despite this article being over 50 years 
old, it is well worth your while to read it and consider how many of their 
predictions have, or have not, come true.
1.1.1 Background reading
Leavitt, H.J. and T.L. Whistler ‘Management in the 1980s’, 
Harvard Business 
Review
November/December 1958. This is available in the Online Library.
The subject matter of this course is sometimes discussed under the 
heading of the application of ICT, seeing ICT as something we apply to 
various human activities. Indeed, the word ‘application’ is often used in 
the business world to mean a particular use of technology or a particular 
type of software specific for a particular task. Thus we might say that 
word processors (for example, Microsoft Word or Open Office Writer) 
are one of the most important desktop ‘applications’. You will find that 
that in this subject guide we will often talk about ‘organisations’. This is 
used as a catch-all phrase to stand for all kinds of bodies and associations. 
Usually we will mean business organisations – firms or companies – or 
public sector organisations – a government ministry or some public agency 
such as a school or police body. Just sometimes we may consider non-

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IS1060 Introduction to information systems
2
governmental organisations (NGOs) or voluntary organisations – a church 
or a charity such as Oxfam or Save the Children. On some occasions 
these distinctions matter – business organisations seek profits, public 
bodies do not, at least directly; NGOs may have many volunteer workers; 
business and government workers are paid. However, for our purpose 
the distinctions usually do not matter and we emphasise the common 
characteristics of organisations as people working together and as places 
where technology is applied.
As a student, you need to understand from the start of this course – and 
at the start of the