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1.2. Creativity in mathematics and problem solving
Upon examining the pedagogy of teaching mathematics in many countries, it was found that 
mathematics is associated with rote-memorization of formulas or procedures and seat work 
(Novak, 2010; Greeno, 2017). Although there is a role for rote-learning, memorized knowl-
edge is not half as useful as knowledge that is actually understood. Rote-learning makes 
mathematics lesson boring and led to many students hating mathematics. An article about 
the notion of mathematical creativity by Liljedahl and Sriraman (2006, p. 19), proposed that, 
mathematical creativity at the school level can be thought of as:

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1. The process that results in unusual (novel) and/or insightful solution(s) to a given 
problem or analogous problems, and/or
2. The formulation of new questions and/or possibilities that allow an old problem to be 
regarded from a new angle.
The important role of problem solving is obvious in the two statements above and creativ-
ity in mathematics can be promoted through problem solving. Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, and 
Gallate (2009, p. 1) claimed that there is a great overlap between the literature on creativity 
and that on problem solving, while Plucker, Beghetto, and Dow (2004, pp. 83–84) consider 
creativity as an important component of problem solving. Chamberlin and Moon (2005, 
p. 38) define creativity in mathematics as an unusual ability to generate novel and useful 
solutions to simulated or real applied problems using mathematical modeling. Consequently, 
Posamentier, Smith, and Stepelman (2009, p. 121), claimed that “solving a problem is like 
inventing something new”. The role of problem solving in promoting creativity is clear, hence 
students should be engaged with challenging problems and be made to experience this aspect 
of CPS. This research attempted to nurture creativity through mathematical problem solv-
ing, namely CPS, a problem solving approach with the emphasis on creativity. Creativity is 
achieved through solving problems which are open-ended and appropriate to the context of 
the topics chosen.
Given that creativity is teachable, we will now define creativity in school mathematics. The 
appropriate definition for creativity at school level is given by Sriraman (2005, p. 24) which 
is “The process that results in unusual and/or insightful solution(s) to a given problem or 
analogous problems”. Meanwhile, Liljedahl and Sriraman defined mathematical creativity as:
“the ability to produce original work that significantly extends the body of knowl-
edge which could also include significant syntheses and extensions of known ideas” 
(2006, p. 18).
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics document defines problem solving in 
mathematics education as “engaging in a task for which the solution method is not known 
in advance” (2000, p. 52). In trying to execute problem solving, students must utilize their 
knowledge in finding a solution to a problem, a process which would lead to new discovery 
and mathematical understandings. On the other hand, other features that students could 
acquire by learning the method of problem solving in mathematics are,
“ways of thinking, habits of persistence and curiosity, and confidence in unfamiliar 
situations that will serve them well outside the mathematics classroom” (National 
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000).
Problem solving is also considered as one of the most important skills in the 21st century 
that a student should possess because of the many advantages that a good problem solver 
would enjoy in everyday life and in the workplace. Therefore, problem solving should be 
considered an integral part of mathematics learning and it should not be viewed as exercises 
that students perform at the end of every topic from the school textbook.
Observe the nature of the workforce today, and it can be seen that machines are taking 
over the repetitive actions in a job task. Additionally, one in ten persons encounter more 
complex problems that require at least 30 minutes to solve, which imply the demand for 
complex problem solving skills in many highly skilled managerial, professional and techni-

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M. Khalid et al. Enhancing creativity and problem solving skills through creative problem...
cal occupations (OECD, 2014a, p. 13). Because of the importance of problem solving, Pro-
gram for International Student Assessment (PISA), besides testing 15-year old students on 
mathematics, science and reading, also focuses testing students on problem solving. In 2003, 
students were given a series of paper-based exercises to test their problem solving skills. Then 
in 2012, computer-based and the student’s interaction with the problem were introduced 
(OECD, 2013, p. 120). In 2012, PISA defines CPS competency as:
“an individual’s capacity to engage in cognitive processing to understand and resolve 
problem situations where a method of solution is not immediately obvious. It includes 
the willingness to engage with such situations in order to achieve one’s potential as a 
constructive and reflective citizen” (OECD, 2013, p. 122).
Hence, teaching mathematics through problem solving is a term used to describe the 
method of teaching where the teaching of mathematics topics is focused through problem 
solving contexts and enquiry-oriented environments. This method of teaching is demon-
strated by the teacher,
“helping students to construct a deep understanding of mathematical ideas and pro-
cesses by engaging them in doing mathematics: creating, conjecturing, exploring, 
testing, and verifying” (Lester et al., 1994, p. 154).