Shared Characteristics Cladistics rests on three assumptions. The first is that living things are related by descent from
a common ancestor, which is a general assumption of evolution. The second is that speciation occurs
by splits of one species into two, never more than two at a time, and essentially at one point in time.
This is somewhat controversial, but is acceptable to most biologists as a simplification. The third
assumption is that traits change enough over time to be considered to be in a different state. It is also
assumed that one can identify the actual direction of change for a state. In other words, we assume
that an amniotic egg is a later character state than non-amniotic eggs. This is called the polarity of the
character change. We know this by reference to a group outside the clade: for example, insects have
non-amniotic eggs; therefore, this is the older or ancestral character state. Cladistics compares
ingroups and outgroups. An ingroup (lizard, rabbit and human in our example) is the group of taxa
being analyzed. An outgroup (lancelet, lamprey and fish in our example) is a species or group of
species that diverged before the lineage containing the group(s) of interest. By comparing ingroup
members to each other and to the outgroup members, we can determine which characteristics are
evolutionary modifications determining the branch points of the ingroup’s phylogeny.
If a characteristic is found in all of the members of a group, it is a
shared ancestral character because there has been no change in the trait during the descent of each of the members of the clade.
Although these traits appear interesting because they unify the clade, in cladistics they are considered
not helpful when we are trying to determine the relationships of the members of the clade because
every member is the same. In contrast, consider the amniotic egg characteristic of Figure 73. Only
some of the organisms have this trait, and to those that do, it is called a