English for

Community Ecology 
A 
biological community
consists of the different species within an area, typically a three-
dimensional space, and the interactions within and among these species. The mechanisms underlying 
these interactions and their effects are of interest to community ecologists. Conspecific interaction 
questions frequently center on competition among individuals of the same species for a scarce 
resource. Ecologists also study interactions between various species; members of different species 
are called 
heterospecifics
. Predation, parasitism, herbivory, competition, and pollination are a few 
examples of interactions between heterospecific species. These interactions can influence ecological 
and evolutionary processes that affect diversity and have a regulating effect on population sizes. 
For instance, ants and the larvae of the Karner blue butterfly develop mutualistic relationships 
(especially 
Formica 
spp). 
Mutualism 
is a form of long-term relationship that has coevolved between 
two species and from which each species benefits. Individual organisms must benefit from one 
another for mutualism to exist; this benefit must come from the relationship itself. Researchers have 
found that "tending," or ant protection of Karner blue butterfly larvae (caterpillars) from predatory 
insects and spiders, increases survival. This may be due to the fact that when being cared for by ants, 
larvae spend less time in each life stage, giving them an advantage. The larvae of the Karner blue 
butterfly secrete ant-like pheromones and a substance that is rich in carbohydrates, which the ants use 
as a source of energy. Although the ant species that accompany the Karner blue larvae may be 
somewhat opportunistic and vary across the butterfly's range, both the ants and the larvae benefit 
from their interaction
126
.