LECTURE – 4. SOLIDIFICATION & CRYSTALLINE IMPERFECTIONS.
4.1. Solidification of metals.
4.2. Solidification of single crystals.
4.3. Metallic solid solutions.
4.4. Crystalline imperfections.
4.5. Experimental techniques for identification of microstructure and
Defects.
Keywords:
Fe-C diagram; cementite;
iron;
- iron; solid solution; liquidus; solidus;
ledeburite; ferrite; second cementite; perlite;
From the state diagram of the alloy seen above, we see that steel and cast iron
are of great importance in engineering. The presence of small amounts of other
impurities in steel and cast iron does not significantly affect its melting point.
In science, the Fe-C diagram is the fundamental knowledge of steel and cast iron.
Carbon is a chemical compound with iron (cementite) or free (it can be bricked
in the form of graphite). Accordingly, there are two diagrams cementite and graphite.
Before studying the mixture of iron and carbon, let's look at a diagram of the changes
that occur when iron is heated and cooled. It is known that it dissolves in Fe-1539.
Splitting several critical points up to 1539 indicates several allotropic shape changes
when heating iron. When heating and cooling the iron, the curves are represented by
steps, so that the iron does not change for a certain time when it reaches a certain
temperature.
These steps indicate that some changes occur in the iron both when it cools and
when it heats up.
During these changes that occur when heating iron, it absorbs the heat given to
the metal, and during the changes that occur when it cools, heat is released from the
metal.
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4.1 . Graph of cooling and melting of iron
Iron 768
0
S Crystal lattice centered cubic lattice with magnetic properties at low
temperature . This form of iron
is called iron.
When the temperature increases 768, iron becomes demagnetized. This form of
changed iron
is called iron.
900-910
0
C, the crystal lattice of iron changes and takes the form of a cube with
centered sides.
0
C are especially important when studying iron and carbon alloys . When iron
is examined by X-rays, it can be seen that the crystal lattice has changed, and the heat
given
to the iron is spent on this change, the curve stops and forms a step, and g becomes
iron . does not change until heated, and at a temperature of 1401 in iron, the crystal
lattice changes again and becomes a centered cube. When liquid iron is cooled, all
changes are repeated in reverse order. When the metal becomes liquid, the crystal
lattice is broken and the atoms are in disorderly motion.
Iron exists in 3 different forms with 2 different spatial crystal lattices in the solid
state.
When carbon atoms are located in the iron lattice, carbon forms a solid solution
with iron (
Fe) .
This solution is called ferrite, and Fe solid solution is called austenite.
Carbon dissolves well in Fe. The solubility of carbon in iron depends on
temperature. At 720
0
C, a maximum of 0.05% of carbon can be dissolved. It has
magnetic properties, conducts electricity well, and contains up to 0.006% of dissolved
carbon at room temperature. Fe carbon in ausenite
dissolves 2%. (1130
0
C) α-iron is
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able to dissolve a lot of carbon. Makes it possible to perform thermal and chemical
thermal operations.
If we heat the iron to a temperature higher than 910
0
C, the iron will have a soft
structure if it has large grains.
4.2. Fig. Iron carbon phase diagram
In 1868, the Russian scientist Chernov determined the existence of critical points
depending on the amount of carbon in steel. The highest amount of carbon in iron is
6.67%. in the form of a chemical compound called cementite-carbide iron (Fe
3
C).
Cementite is an unstable chemical compound that decomposes at high
temperatures.
Fe
3
C=3Fe+C
Therefore, the diagram you want to draw is called an iron cementite or iron-
carbon state diagram. The ferrocarbon phase diagram is drawn to scale based on the
critical points and temperatures obtained in the manner seen above. Let's analyze the
Fe-C state diagram drawn.
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ASD line. All alloys above this line are liquid. And the AESF line will be
Solidus.
The character of the lines shows that the diagram is complex, and the structure
consists of a combination of type 1 and type 2 diagrams. From point A to point Ye is a
type 2 diagram, and from Ye to F is a type 1 diagram. During the cooling process,
regardless of the amount of S in the mixture, along the AS line, crystals of solid solution
1 begin to appear from liquid mixtures (in which carbon crystals are present), which is
called austenite.
Therefore, in the ASE region, the mixture consists of two phases, liquid mixture
and austenite.
Along the SD line, solid cementite crystals begin to form from the liquid
mixture.
A number of crystals of cementite with 6.67% S appear and at point S, the
remaining cementite in the liquid mixture crystallizes and forms a eutectic mixture
(4.3% S) at 1130 . Therefore, the cementite is fully hardened in the line of YeSF.
austenite and cementite crystallize simultaneously to form the ledeburite
eutectic.
The ledeburite eutectic is present in all alloys containing 2-6.7% S, and the full
alloy is called cast iron.
Point E is the point where iron is saturated with carbon (2%). All alloys lying to
the left of point Е contain austenite when fully solidified, and these alloys form a group
of steels.
We see the changes in the solidified alloy. GSE, RSK and GRQ lines show that
structural changes also occur in the solidified alloys.
Changes in the solid state are due to the transition of iron from one mode f ication
to another mode f ication and the change in the solubility of carbon in iron.
In the diagram, austenite(A) is in the AGSE region, and ferrite separates from
austenite along the GS line as the alloy cools. Ferrite
is a solid solution of carbon in
Fe. In other words,
Fe
passes Fe. In addition, when the temperature decreases from
1130
0
C to 723
0
C, the
Fe solubility of carbon decreases from 2% to 0.8%.
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A second cementite separates from the austenite along the SE line in the diagram.
The second cementite separates from the hard alloy.
The GSR region shows a two-phase diagram, i.e. ferrite and divider, the variable
consists of austinite.
At point S (0.8%S) 723
0
S all aus t enit splits and transforms to form a soft
mechanical mixture. Euectoid (consisting of ferrite and secondary cementite) is called
pearlite in this system. So steel with 0.83% S di at point S is called a eutecoid mixture.
Steels containing less than 0.8% carbon are called pre-eutectic steels , and steels with
0.8%-2% S are called post-eutectic steels .
In all alloys along the RSK line, all remaining austenite is split and melted to
form per l it. Therefore, the RSK line is called the pearlite-forming line. If we compare
lines S and C from the diagram, we see the following:
1). Above point C is liquid mixture and above point C is solidified austenite.
2). The lines AS and SD meet at point S, indicates the formation of a crystal
from a liquid mixture.
3) At point C, a liquid mixture with 4.3% S crystallizes and forms Ledeburite
eutectic, while at point S, a mixture with 0.8% S crystallizes and forms pearlite.
4) FE euthetic-ladeburite line lies at point S level, and RK line eutentaid-pearlite
line lies at point S level.
5) Point C is the primary crystallization center, while point C is the secondary
crystallization center of the alloy. When an iron-carbon alloy is cooled from a liquid
state slowly (from 10 per hour) to room temperature, we see the structure at the bottom:
Ferrite, cementite, austinite, per l it and ledeburit.
a) Ferrite (F) is a solid solution of carbon in alpha iron, in which carbon is 0.3%
(0.006% in 0). Ferrite is technically pure iron.
The mechanical properties of ferrite are as follows :
Hardness NV=8 0 -1 0 0 N/m m
2
(according to Brinell) .
Relative elasticity
=30-40% t
Tensile strength limit
v
= 26-30
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c) Cementite (TS) chemical combination of iron and carbon (iron carbide), this
combination is very hard, its hardness is NV=800 N/mm
2
c) Austinite (A) is a solid compound of carbon in gamma iron, which can contain
2% carbon in solution.
g) Pearlite (P) is a mechanical mixture formed in small grains of cemetite with
ferrite
d) Ledeburite (L) is a mechanical mixture of cementite and austenite , which is
formed by solidifying white cast iron at 1130.
In addition to carbon, steel contains a number of other elements (Mn
,
Si, S, R,
N, H, O...), but carbon has a great influence on the strength properties of steel.
The hardness and strength of steel increases with the increase in carbon content,
while the plastic properties decrease. The hardness and strength of steel increases with
the increase in carbon content, while the plastic properties decrease. Steel, approaching
S=1%, has the highest strength (
v
=1000mpa), when the amount of carbon increases
from 0.8-1.0%, secondary cementite is formed in the steel structure, and this
phenomenon is po It reduces the strength of Latin.
Increases strength properties of manganese and silicon steels. In ordinary steels
M
n
0.35%, Si
is 0.8%. If these elements exceed the specified amount, the steel is
alloyed.
Sulfur and phosphorus elements are harmful elements. Sulfur causes steel to
break when heated, and phosphorus causes steel to break when cold. In ordinary steels,
SR does not
exceed 0.06-0.07% .
Hidden additives form chemical compounds from O, N, N steels and in some
cases deteriorate the mechanical properties of steels.
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