Fundamental Pedagogy Jana Doležalová

15.4 Pedagogy as Training for Life I: the Enlightenment and 
early Modern Era 
At the time of the birth of the Modern Era, the motto of Enlightenment 
thinkers was 
sapere aude (dare to know!). It was a reaction to the Middle Ages’ 
traditional reliance on external authority. The Enlightenment saw itself as an 
age of ripening of mankind, an immense historical milestone when humanity 
finally finds the courage to free itself from the grip of ignorance. The means of 
this emancipation is the rediscovered human 
ratio that man hoped would help 
him autonomously ‘discover, describe and explain the natural order of things’ 
(see Wright 2004).
At the beginning of this era, the emerging scientific and technical paradigm 
had little influence on pedagogy. Natural studies, for example, were considered 
a peculiar hobby of weirdoes and charlatans until the mid-19
th
century. Even 
Lavoisier presented his experiments at the court as a sort of light 
entertainment. The practical value of science was started to be appreciated in 
the course of the 19
th
century, especially by people involved in production. 
Pedagogy had to adapt to the new situation. Up until now, people could do with 
just the knowledge, skills and habits passed on through personal relationships – 
father to son, master to apprentice, etc., and had no need to training in special 
institutions. Those who went to school did not do so because of work but in 
order to elevate their spirit, as R. Palouš points out. When a man does not need 
to work, has no other worries and is not concerned about gaining his living, he 
can afford the luxury of 
scholé (Greek for the free use of time for wonder, 
curiosity and cultivating discernment) that enables him to look inward, reflect 
on his life, devote himself to learning and meditation about the meaning his 
actions and daily preoccupations. But new science that leads to modern 
production techniques and industrialisation requires a radically new pedagogy 
and schools. While in the pre-modern era, the primary goal of education was 
the search for and maintenance of the harmony of being, i.e. harmony between 
man and the world (and God), the dawn of modern science distances man from 
the world (and God). The world becomes objectified. First, it becomes the 
object of observation, description and classification and later of analysis and 
reconstruction. Reconstruction of the world is made possible by a new set of 
concepts that essentially reduce reality while allowing man to efficiently 
understand, command and, most importantly make use of reality. Ever since 
Francis Bacon, the scientifically minded man does not ask ‘just so’ questions as 
a speculative exercise. His aim is always to expand useful knowledge. He strives 
to uncover the secrets of nature in order to allow men to usurp it, rule over it 
and use it to their advantage. Man will no longer be at the mercy of physical, 
biological, chemical or any other natural phenomenon. On the contrary, they 

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will be recruited to his service: steam, pulley systems, the atom, genes – all 
shall be at his command. Scientific achievements shall, according to Čapek’s 
engineer Prokop, the fictional inventor of the explosive krakatit, ‘give light and 
warmth’. The Enlightenments’ humanists do not yet concede that they could 
also burn and kill. It is because the humanist believes in good intentions of the 
good human nature, which, if constantly enlightened with the light of reason, 
will reach a higher evolutionary stage to finally establish the fabled 
regnum 
hominis (the reign of humaneness). Stenley Grenz expresses this belief quite 
accurately: ‘The modern scientist holds it axiomatic that anything yielded by 
enquiry will be always good. This assumption of internal goodness of 
understanding gives certain optimism to the Enlightenment worldview. It leads 
to the faith that progress is inevitable, that science together with the power of 
education will eventually free us from our helplessness face to face with nature 
and from any form of social slavery.’ (1997, p. 14) Intoxicated with scientific 
advances, the modern man started to believe in moral progress, too. After all, 
those who know ‘right’ will also act ‘right’. The question of a connection 
between 
scientia and conscientia was not exactly new per se, but the 
assumption that science and education will automatically have a humanising 
effect in the processes of ennoblement of the human race received its first 
doctrinal form only as part of the modern narrative (see Menck 2001, pp. 261-
275). 
Schools and pedagogy are set two specific tasks at this stage. Firstly, 
pedagogy becomes a tool for the spread and sharing of the optimistic-rational 
meta-narrative. Secondly, it becomes a methodical toolbox designed to provide 
the individual with the means necessary for understanding the world (nature) 
according to the scientific-technological paradigm. The set of information and 
the character of skills that one must master in order to fulfil the modern agenda 
can no longer be acquired by the traditional passing down from father to son. 
We are dealing now (and will deal in the future) with huge amounts of 
encyclopaedic data as well as increasing specialisation demanded by scientific 
progress.
The school, since time immemorial a political tool of every system of 
government, now appears in the centre of public attention. Assuming with 
Bacon that ‘knowledge is power’, it is in every enlightened ruler’s interest to 
provide and expand knowledge as much as possible. This is why we start to see 
the emergence of compulsory school attendance in European countries in the 
course of the 19
th
century. In what is now the Czech Republic, the school 
system originally introduced by Maria Theresa was gradually modified in the 
Enlightenment spirit under Felbiger’s and Kindermann’s reforms. In 1869, an 
amendment of the School Act defined the structure of the educational system 
that remains in place more or less unchanged to this day.

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To illustrate and compare the modern approach to pedagogy with previous 
(and subsequent) approaches, let us have a look at the ideas of one of the 
most typical representatives of modern pedagogy - Johann Friedrich Herbart. In 
the heart of Herbart’s concept lays a specific synthesis of philosophical, ethical, 
aesthetic and psychological premises. His formulations and philosophical 
deductions were somewhat rigid and hard to understand but the same can be 
said about most German thinkers of this time. Simply put, Herbart’s goal was to 
bring up a noble (virtuous) individual capable of further independent moral and 
intellectual growth. Defined this way, his objective is in no way unique and he 
still maintains pre-modern outlines and terminology, but the method proposed 
by Herbart for achieving this goal is already in line with the Enlightenment 
paradigm.
According to Herbart, the educational process takes place on three levels: 
1. Domination (Regierung) – begins immediately after birth. Threats, bans, 
punishment and supervision are there to tame the naturally wild 
tendencies of the child, which is to be made ready for the systematic 
educational and learning experience of attending school. At this stage, 
the key objective is to awaken the child’s will because studying without 
will bears little fruit.
2. Instruction (Unterricht) – is the core of Herbart’s method and comprises 
four formal levels that define the lesson model:
Clarity – careful and conscious penetration into the subject matter 
thanks to an awakened interest in the topic. 
Association – connecting newly learnt ideas with what the student 
already knows; a psychological process whereby pieces of knowledge 
are put into mutual context. 
System – systematisation of conclusions drawn from the associated 
ideas. 
Method – practical application of the newly acquired ideas through 
practical exercises. 
3. Cultivation (Zücht) – character moulding with emphasis on obedience, 
discipline, self-control, self-development and fortification of moral 
principles. 
For Herbart, teaching takes pride of place as the fundamental and primary 
means of education. Development of rational education is a basic condition for 
a successful moral education. He introduces the concept of educational 
teaching, which he uses to unite moral, intellectual and volitional elements, as 
can be demonstrated by this quotation: ‘Teaching without moral education is a 
mere means without an aim; moral education with teaching is an aim with 
means.’ The influence of the newly emerging science of psychology can be 

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detected in Herbart’s emphasis on awakening a multifaceted interest in things, 
without which successful teaching is impossible. Interest concentrates 
attention, fosters desirable ideas and helps connect pieces of knowledge 
together, which allows the student to remember new material voluntarily, 
quickly, thoroughly and without greater difficulties. It must be noted at this 
point that interest was often aroused through external action, as testified by J. 
Úlehla’s critical statement: ‘
Ruhe und Gehorsam, der Geist muss gezüchtigt 
Arden, eine heilige Ruhe.’ Úlehla believes such instruction is ‘extortion’ rather 
than ‘awakening’ (1904, p. 1). 
Herbart’s system is characterised by its systematic and elaborate approach. 
However, educational practice has uncovered crucial weaknesses in his concept. 
Herbart was the first to propose a universal didactic mechanism that can be 
practically applied to any study subject, to any lesson and to any age group. 
After all, it is not for nothing that he calls his education levels ‘formal’. As part 
of rationalisation of the pedagogical process, he separated didactic means 
(method) from the goals and content. Goals no longer dictate the method. This 
was revolutionary because up until then goal, content and method were 
intimately linked. For Plato, for example, the good life (goal) was unthinkable 
without a true understanding of transcendent ideas – the role of education was 
to lead man from the darkness of ignorance, lies and illusions towards the light 
of truth. For Christianity, too, redemption (goal) was inseparable from the path 
or method, namely building an authentic relationship with God.
Herbart invented a mechanism how to teach anything to anybody. It was 
met with an immediate success and his method soon started to be used in real 
schools. It was lucid, sophisticated, and universally applicable. It a allowed 
education on a mass scale, which, by the way, greatly suited the Austro-
Hungarian (essentially totalitarian) establishment that needed to quickly 
produce an educated and high-performing population. For the same reasons, it 
is no surprise that Herbart’s ideas came to the fore again in Czechoslovakia in 
the totalitarian post-war period. Although Herbart had in view nobler (good old) 
aims, his method perfectly corresponded to the need to develop a new type of 
school that would educate individuals for the new, bright future of the world.
A fundamental problem of Herbart’s pedagogy is that is sees man as 
nothing more than a rational mechanism. While Herbart never says this 
explicitly his method directly implies such an anthropological reductionism. The 
notorious Herbartism that eventually spread through countries in Europe and 
overseas was at the same time a development and deformation of Herbart’s 
system. Herbart’s defenders vehemently argue that Herbartism has nothing to 
do with Herbart and his ideas. However, a less biased critic must concede some 
internal connections. The characteristic traits of Herbartism that attracted fierce 

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criticism at the turn of the 19
th
and 20
th
centuries are generally well-known. 
Here we summarise the most important ones: 

Transmission of ready-made facts to students to memorise 

Dominant, almost authoritarian, position of the teacher; student as a 
passive object of education 

Coercion, moralising, lecturing as basic educational methods 

Receptive, passive, verbal character of learning; no space for students’ 
own initiative 

Largely external motivation – rewards, punishments, grades, teaching 
aids.