Introduction. Syntax is 1 a system of rules and means of creating

PART II SYNTAX
INTRODUCTION. Syntax is 1) a system of rules and means of creating
speech units characteristic of a language; 2) a branch of grammar studying the process of speech formation: combinability and word-order; general peculiarities of the sentence as a separate language unit, and those of the statement as the part of a text.The syntax as a branch of linguistics studies the language mechanisms that make it possible to form speech units by means of language elements (words, word-forms, word-combinations, sentences). It studies the formation of speech expressions (statements, characterized by certain intonation that can be included into a text). The syntax also studies and formulates the rules of speech formation.
The syntax is divided into three parts:
1) The syntax of the phrase, also called Minor Syntax . It studies the combinability of words (syntactic valency), ways of their realization (agreement, government, parataxis (примыкание). It also studies the relations they express (attributive, complementary).
2) The syntax of the sentence, also called Major Syntax. It studies the inner structure and communicative types of the sentence (statement, question, inducement), predicativity and modality; semantics and synonymic transformations (replacement of a clause by a participial construction); the simple and composite sentence as an integral predicative and poly-predicative unit; the ways and means to form the relations within the complex and compound sentences (coordination and subordination). Word-forms and phrases are observed as parts of the sentence.
3) The syntax of the text. It studies the modifications the syntax undergoes in the process of text formation; the rules of adopting a sentence to the context (inversion, ellipsis, meta-text parenthetic words, such as ‘however’, ‘therefore‘ and others) and to the situation (addressing and authorization). Syntactic systems of the English and Russian languages can undergo syntactic analysis for they have both isomorphic and allomorphic features and phenomena to study. The principal isomorphic features of the of these are predetermined, as will be shown in this section, by several factors, the main of which are the following: 1) by common in both languages classes of syntactic units which are word-groups, sentences and various types of suprasyntactic units;
2) by generally common paradigmatic classes and types of these syntactic units;
3) by isomorphic and allomorphic types and means of syntactic connection in them; 4) by mostly isomorphic syntactic processes taking place in their word-groups and sentences; 5) by identical syntactic relations in wordgroups and sentences of both contrasted languages; 6) by common functions performed by different parts of speech in word-groups and sentences.
The allomorphic features and phenomena at the syntactic level find their expression in the following: 1) in the existence of various qualitative and quantitative differences in some paradigmatic classes of word-groups and sentences; 2) in some types of word-groups; 3) in the unequal representation of different means of syntactic connection; 4) in the existence of different ways of expressing predication; 5) in the difference in the structural forms of some English parts of the sentence; 6) in the means of joining some subordinate clauses to the main/principal clause, etc.All these features characterize respectively the syntactic constants of the syntactic level, i. e. the syntactic processes, the syntactic relations, the syntactic connections in word-groups and sentences being themselves constants of this language level.

1. 
   PHRASE
   

A phrase/word-group is a syntactic construction which typically contains more than one word, but which lacks the subject-predicate structure usually found in a clause. The grammatical description of phrases is sometimes called "minor syntax", in distinction to "major syntax" studying the sentence and its textual connections. The word-group in both contrasted languages consists of two or more grammatically connected notional parts of speech expressing some content. Word-groups in English and Russian may be: 1) syntactically free combinations of words like to learn much, to learn hard, to learn quickly, to learn well, to learn there/here, etc. or 2) idiomatically bound (constant) collocations, i. e. unchanged for the given sense word-combinations as to have dinner/supper, to take measures, to throw light, Hobson's choice, etc. Free word-groups or word-combinations exist alongside of prepositional phrases which are often considered even to be of the same nature as the idiomatic word-groups. Genuine syntactically free word-groups, unlike prepositional phrases, are used to name actions (quick reading), objects (a new hat), state of objects (the house ablaze), number or quantity (two thirds, the first three); also they may give characteristics of an action (singing well, going quickly, arriving first) Common features are also observed in the structural forms of word-groups in the contrasted languages. They are:
1.Simple word-groups which consist of two immediate components /ICs/ connected with the help of one grammatical means (synthetic or analytical): this book –these books, to see her; to read well; nice flowers; cotton yarn, people of rank;
2.Word-groups of complicated structure and grammatical form, i. e. with two ways of grammatical connection of their components or expressing different grammatical relations, e.g.: writing and reading letters (co-ordinate and analytical forms of connection), these books and magazines (synthetic and co-ordinate connection), to see Mike driving a car (analytical and predicative) –There are also structurally more complicated free word-groups in both languages, eg: those long sentences for you to analyse and translate. In this English word-group and its Russian semantic equivalent one can identify different grammatical relations: a) attributive (those long sentences) and predicative (sentences for you to analyze). Since present-day English is mainly analytical by its structure, the predominant means of its grammatical connection in word-groups are analytical. They are syndetic (prepositional) and asyndetic (syntactic placement). These two forms of analytical connection are very often of equal semantic relevance, as a result of which they are often interchangeable, as in the following substantival word-groups:
Syndetic connection
production of sugar cane
books at the institute library
Asyndetic connection
sugar cane production
the institute library books
Phrases are traditionally classified into types based on the most important word they contain: if this is a noun, for example, the phrase would be called a noun phrase-, if an adjective, an adjective phrase, and so on. Six word classes -nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and prepositions - are found as the identifying elements (or heads) of phrasal constructions. However, there are considerable differences between the syntactic patterns which can occur within each type of phrase, ranging from the very limited possibilities of pronoun phrases to the highly variable patterns found within noun phrases.The difference between the phrase and the sentence is a fundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase. For instance, in the phrase write letters the first component can change according to the verbal categories of tense, mood, etc., and the second component according to the category of number. Thus, writes a letter, has written a letter, would have written letters, etc., are grammatical modifications of one phrase.The sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence.The phrase has no intonation, just as a word has none. Intonation is one of the most important features of the sentence, distinguishing it from the phrase. To differentiate between the grammatical study of phrase and its lexicological study one should keep in mind that grammar has to study the aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of the words making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions of the phrase as a whole, while lexicology has to deal with the lexical meaning of the words and their semantic groups.In order to understand the nature of phrases as level-forming units we must take into consideration their status in the larger lingual units built up by them. These larger units are sentences. It is within the sentence that any phrase performs its level-determined function (being used as a notional part of the sentence). On the other hand, any notional word, not only the phrase, can be used in the role of an individual part of the sentence, such as subject, object, predicate, etc.
Types of Phrase in English and Russian. According to relations between their components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into the following three types:
1) phrases of coordination
2) phrases of subordination;
3) secondary predication phrases .
1. Phrases of coordination in English and Russian are comprised by components, equal in rank, which are connected either syndetically or asyndetically, e.g.: books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се. Phrases of coordination may include several components of equal rank, though not necessarily of the same lexical-grammatical nature, e.g.:
(They were) alone and free and happy in love. (Abrahams).
Such and the like phrases in both languages perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence, e.g: There they were: stars, sun, sea, light, darkness, space, great waters. (Conrad) According to the structure of the components and their number, phrases of coordination may be simple and extended. Simple phrases consist of two components only, eg: Pete or Mike, he and she, all but me. Extended phrases of coordination consist of structurally complicated components: to speak about literature, to analyze it stylistically –
2. Phrases of subordination in all the languages consist of two parts: a head word, which is the nucleus of the phrase, and of one or more complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group of words, functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional word, e.g: my book, his "oh", her house and garden, the film "Some like it hot", John’s car, etc.Among the existing classifications of word-groups the morphological (paradigmatic) classification remains one of the most embracing. It is based on the lexical-grammatical nature of the head component or on its functional substitute. As a result, the following paradigmatic classes of word-groups can be singled out in English and Russian:
Noun phrase, in which the mainly attributive complements may be in preposition or in postposition to the noun head. Their way of connection is analytical in English and synthetic in Russian, though not without exceptions.
The noun phrase is the main construction which can appear as the subject, object, or complement of a clause. It consists essentially of a noun or nounlike word which is the most important constituent of the phrase: a fat cat, the horses in the stable, the poor, ten Chinese. Sometimes the noun appears alone or accompanied by one or more other constituents, some of which are themselves fairly complex syntactic units in their own right. As a result, noun phrases are more varied in their construction than any other kind of phrase in English.
The parts of a noun phrase. No matter how complex a noun phrase is, it can be analysed into one or more of the following fourconstituents:
• The head is the most important constituent, around which any other constituents cluster. It is the head which controls any agreement with other parts of the sentence. Thus we have His new book is interesting alongside His new books are interesting, and The girl in the garden saw it herself alongside The boy in the garden saw it himself. do not take one), but most noun phrases do, and the commonest determiners {the and a) are among the most frequent words in the language.The determiner can be the centre of its own cluster of words which share in the expression of quantity. In the present approach, those which appear before the determiner are called (logically enough) predeterminers. Those
which immediately follow the determiner, preceding any adjectives which may
occur, are called postdeterminers; they are chiefly the numerals (my three fat
cats, the second big party) and a few other quantifying words (such as many and
several).
• The premodification comprises any other words appearing between the
determiner and the head noun-mainly adjectives or adjective-like words. In the
phrase those lovely old French wooden spoons, everything between those and
spoons is said to 'premodify' the noun. (In some grammars, the notion of
premodification is broader, and includes everything in the noun phrase which
appears before the head, including the determiner and its satellites.)
• The postmodification comprises everything which appears in the phrase
after the head. The chief types are prepositional phrases (the car in the garage),
finiteі clauses (the film that I saw), and nonfinite phrases (the new car parked
outside). Adverbs and adjectives are also sometimes used to 'postmodify' the
noun, as in the journey home and something different.
GROWING NOUN PHRASES
Buns are for sale
The buns are for sale
All the buns are for sale
All the currant buns are for sale
Not quite all the currant buns are for sale
Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns are for sale
Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns on the table are for sale
Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns on show on the table are for sale
Not quite all the many fine interesting-looking hot buttered home-made currant buns
which grandma cooked on show on the table are for sale
Predeterminer Determiner Postdeterminer Premodification Head Postmodification
Not quite all the many fine…currant buns which…table
Verb Phrase is also characterised in English and Russian by some
isomorphic and allomorphic features. The structural types of verb phrases are
common for the languages:
1) with simple objective or adverbial complements;
2) with extended or expanded complements;
3) with simple or extended objective and adverbial complements.
In both languages one can find verb phrases with pre-posed and postposed
complements.
Simple verb phrases with a transitive verb as a head-word contain nouns,
adjectives, numerals or adverbs as subordinate elements, e.g.: to like books, to
receive four, to love her, to prefer blue (to red), to love it to be asleep; любити
книжки, отримати четвірку, кохати її, любити синє, щиро любити,
почуватися краще, etc.
Prepositions are found both in English and Russian verb phrases, e.g.: to
speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на
двоє).
Russian has no equivalents, however, for the combinations of a verb with
a gerund. Such phrases as to sit reading, to like reading are characteristic of the
English language; while it is only in Russian that we find the combination of
a verb with an adverbial participle
The adverbial participle is usually rendered into English by
means of the participle.
It should be pointed out, however, that unlike English, most of Russian
complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group,
Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial,
infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English
verbal word-groups, eg: to wait for them to come (Verb plus For-to-Infinitive
Construction); to rely on Bob's reading the article (Verb plus Gerundial
Construction); to see the boy playing tennis (Verb plus Participial Construction)..
Adjective Phrase. Due to the restricted combinability of different
notionals with the adjectival head, this paradigmatic class of word-groups has
a much smaller number (and varieties) of structural models. The most
productive and usual in English and Russian are the following simple and
extended models with different dependent components.
Allomorphic, і. е. pertaining to English only are adjectival word-groups
with gerundial complements, for instance: worth reading (being read); worth
reading the book; proud of Pete/ him being decorated, proud of his having been
invited.
Apart from the non-existence of gerundial complements, Russian
adjectival word-groups are characterised by some other features of their own.
Among these, for example, is the free location of most of adjectival and
complements adjuncts which is absolutely impossible in English.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to change the order or position of any
immediate constituent as in the word-groups
though the pattern can not be considered
completely ungrammatical for a predominantly synthetic language, like
Russian either.
Russian head adjectives, however, express the morphological categories
of number, case and gender which is impossible in English.
Pronoun Phrases in the contrasted languages have some general features
in common. Thus, most often the heads are indefinite, negative and mostly
demonstrative pronouns, and much rarer personal and reflexive pronouns. The
usually common adjuncts in both languages are pronouns, prepositional nouns,
adjectives or adjective phrases, infinitives, verb phrases and subordinate
clauses. The most common place of these adjuncts is postposition, though in
Russian they may be used in preposition as well. Besides, Russian pronouns
are all declinable.
Pronoun phrases are formed according to some common structural
patterns in both languages. A characteristic feature of Russian pronoun
phrases is their considerably free position within the pattern which is never
possible in English
Adverb Phrase can be headed by adverbs or by adverbial phrases in both
contrasted languages. The complements may be expressed by adverbs or by
adverbial (usually prepositional) phrases used in preposition as well as in
postposition to the head adverb. This position, i.e. placement is predetermined
by the meaning of the adjunct and by its structural form, the structurally
complicated adjuncts having usually a fixed position even in Russian word groups. This is not so with simple adjuncts which may change their place in
Russian under the influence of some type of stress.
There is, therefore, a complete coincidence in the form of structural
models of adverbial word-groups in the contrasted languages. Allomorphism
can be observed only in the placement of some Russian components which
can be free in Russian as in далеко звідси - звідси далеко or the use of the
English once a year corresponding to the Russian prepositional word-groups
of the same meaning раз на рік/ раз на весь рік.
• Pronoun phrases are restricted to a small number of constructions,
and tend not to be recognized as a productive type in English. Examples
include Silly me!, You there!, she herself, we all, nearly everyone, and such
relative clause constructions as those who knew Fred .. .They are usually
analysed as a minor type of noun phrase.
• Adverb phrases are typically found as short intensifying expressions,
such as terribly slowly and very happily indeed Also common are such time
phrases as quite often and very soon, and constructions of the type as quickly
(as I could).
• Adjective phrases are usually combinations of an adjective and a
preceding intensifier, such as very happy and not too awkward. Other types
include cold enough and a wide range of constructions which complement
the adjective, such as easy to please'and loath to do it.
• Verb phrases display very limited syntactic possibilities: a main verb
preceded by up to four auxiliaries (p. 207), as in may have gone and won't
have been listening. However, this limitation does not prevent the verb
phrase from expressing a wide range of meanings to do with time, mood,
and manner of action.
• By contrast, noun phrases allow an extremely wide range of syntactic
possibilities, from such simple constructions as the hat to such complex
phrases as not quite all the fine new hats which were on sale. They need to be
described separately (see right).
• Prepositional phrases are combinations of a preposition plus a noun
phrase: in the back garden, beneath the hedge. They typically perform the
role of adverbial in a clause: I saw it in the garden = I saw it there. They are
also adjectival: the linguist with the red beard.
D.Crystal (p.222)
3. Predicative Word-Groups. Unlike the previous two types of wordgroups, i.e. the co-ordinate and subordinate word-groups, the extensively used
in English predicative word-groups are not found in present-day Russian.
Completely isomorphic, naturally, are primary predication word-groups, which
are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate. For
example: The student works hard. The book was published last year. Студент
багато працює. Книжка була опублікована торік.
The syntactic interdependence between the components The stu dent and
works, The book and was published remains unchanged when the predicative
word-group is singled out of the sentence. So are the syntagmatic relations
between the components reflected by the verb works (The student works and
was published (the book) –Студент працює. Книжка опублікована була.
Secondary predication. In Modern English there are several ways of
expressing secondary predication. One of them is what is frequently termed the
complex object: I saw him run, We heard them sing. Let us take the first of these
sentences for closer examination. The primary predication in this sentence is
between the subject I and the predicate saw. I is the doer of the action expressed
by the predicate verb. But in this sentence there is more predication, that
between him and run: the verb run expressed the action performed by him. This
predication is obviously a secondary one: him is not the subject of a sentence
or a clause, and run is not its predicate. The same can be said about all the
sentences given above.
On the syntactic function of the group him run (or of its elements) views
vary. The main difference is between those who think that him run is a syntactic
unit, and those who think that him is one part of the sentence and run is another.
If the sentence is taken as a syntactic unit, it is very natural to call it a complex
object: it stands in an object relation to the predicate verb saw and consists of
two elements. If, on the other hand, the phrase him run is not considered to be
a syntactic unit, its first element is an object, and its second element is
conveniently termed the objective predicative.
The choice between the two interpretations remains arbitrary and neither
of them can be proved to be the only right one. In favour of the view that the
phrase is a syntactical unit a semantic reason can be put forward. In some cases
the two elements of the phrase cannot be separated without changing the
meaning of the sentence. H.Sweet, discussing these phenomena, referred to the
sentence I like boys to be quiet, which, as he pointed out, does not imply even
the slightest liking for boys. Still, the fact that the two elements of the
construction cannot be separated is not a proof of the syntactic unity of the
phrase.
If we state in each case two separate parts of the sentence, this will add to
our list of secondary parts of the sentence one more item: the objective
predicative. It can be expressed by an infinitive, a participle (I saw him
running), an adjective (I found him ill), a stative (They found him asleep),
sometimes an adverb, and a prepositional phrase.
This type of secondary predication brings the sentence closer to a
composite one. O.Jespersen has proposed the term “nexus” for every
predicative grouping of words, no matter by what grammatical means it is
realized. He distinguishes between a “junction”, which is not a predicative
group of words (reading man) and “nexus”, which is a predicative complex (the
man reads). If this term is adopted, we may say that in the sentence I saw him
run there are two nexuses: the primary one I saw and the secondary him run.
The absolute constructions. Another type of secondary predication may be
seen in the so-called absolute construction. This appears, for instance, in the
following example. The preliminary greetings spoken, Denis found an empty
chair between John and Jenny and sat down. Here the phrase The preliminary
greetings spoken constitutes an absolute construction. The term absolute is
here used in the original sense of the Latin absolutus, that is, absolved, free,
independent.