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Black community problems illustrated in American Literature

African American literature has generally focused on themes of particular interest to Black people in the United States, such as the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. Other characteristics of American literature include the position of the black Americans on the matter of freedom, as propagated by the American nation, equality that the black people lacked in the United States, and also the themes of culture of black American religion, racism, slavery and nostalgia. The Black American literature forms a good arm of the literature being both influenced by the great African heritage and equally having an influence on African writings on many countries. Lucy Terry who wrote “Bars Fight”, published in 1746 is referred to as the author of the oldest piece of African American literature. Terry's poem was not published until 1885, when it was published in Josiah Holland's “History of Western Massachusetts”.⁸ In 1761, Jupiter Hammon published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" This was followed by the poet Phyllis Wheatley's Poems on Various Subjects published in 1773, three years before American independence. Wheatley (1753 – 1784) was born in Senegal, Africa. She was captured and sold into slavery at the age of seven, and subsequently brought to America and purchased by a Boston merchant. Through her fast mastery of the English Language she wrote well acknowledged poetry that received the acclaim of the leading figures of the African Revolution, including George Washington, who was reported to have “personally thanked her for a poem she wrote in his honour.” ⁹ William Wells Brown (1814 – 1884) and Victor Sejour (1817 – 1874) are said to have produced the earliest works of fiction by African American writers. Sejour was born free in New Orleans and moved to France at the age of nineteen There he published his short story “Le Mulatre” (“The Mulatto”) in 1837. The story is said to represent the first known fiction by an African American, but written in French and published in a French journal. Brown on the other hand was a prominent abolitionist, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian. Born into slavery in the Southern United states, Brown escaped to the North, where he worked for abolitionist causes and was as well a prolific writer. He wrote what is considered to be the first novel by an African American, entitled Clotel, or, The President’s Daughter (1853). The novel is based on what was at that time considered to be a rumor about Thomas Jefferson fathering a daughter with his slave, Sally Hemmings. The book is however not considered the first African novel published in the United States because it was published in England. Harriet Wilson is however acclaimed because of the novel Our Nig (1859) which details the difficulties in the lives of Northern free Blacks. After the end of slavery and the American Civil War, a number of African American authors continued to write nonfiction works about the condition of African Americans in the country. Notable among them are W.E.B. DU Bois (1868 –1963) who published The Souls of Black Folk. Another prominent author of this period, Booker T. Washington however differed with DU Bois. Washington (1856 – 1915) published Up from Slavery (1901), The Future of the American Negro (1899), Tuskegee and its People (1905), and My Larger Education (1911). The post initial black narratives started with The Heroic Slave (1853), My Bondage and Freedom (1855) both by Fredrick Douglass and Booker T. Washington’s Up From Slavery (1904). They formed the literary canon for the second phase. This phase opened a new chapter in the struggle of aliens in America. Forming major characteristics in this new phase was the acknowledgment and appreciation of the slaves who risked their lives to revolt against slavery. In 1841, the effect of this was soon realized as the slaves aboard, the ship revolted and were subsequently fed by the British authority. This freedom became a big tragedy to the American society. Fredrick Douglass The Heroic Slave (1853) had the focus of an open and violent request for the abolition of slavery.¹⁰ This narrative in particular emphasizes that slavery entails savory and glory tales and it should be abolished. It strongly dwells on the ills of slavery. A compliment of this development was the activities of a group called “The escape slaves” technically referred to as the ‘maroons’ out of the tribulation and desperation, they escape the plantation. Prominent among their struggle strategies was the use of Guerrilla warfare, ambush, cross fire, networking strike, withdrawal and other revolutionary approaches unimaginable by the Americans. The reality of the abolition of slavery was inevitably productive in these strategic plans embarked upon by the maroons. The central theme of this thesis is no longer the struggle of the blacks for survival and rights to meaningful living, but also a more philosophical approach to the struggle for emancipation, self determinism and cultural self identity. This led to the emergence of modernism in black American literature. Paul Lawrence Dunbar (1872 – 1906). Dunbar is categorized under the Post slavery era writers of the Black American literature. He often wrote in the rural, “black dialect” of the day. For most of his career, Dunbar wrote for a white audience and he generally avoided racial issues as his subject. The Sport of the Gods is referred to as Dunbar's best known novel (Encarta). Published first in 1902 by Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, the novel tells a story of a black family in a Northern city in the United States of America¹¹. This family apparently suffered from racism, slavery and oppression, although this looks very passive in the plot of the novel. To Harlem Renaissance period we can include everything from political writings to jazz poetry, and it is especially remembered for poets such as Countee Cullen, James Weldon Johnson, and Claude McKay. Langston Hughes was perhaps the best-known Harlem Renaissance poet. The Crisis magazine, an official magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) that was mainly subscribed to by blacks; and Negro World, the newspaper of Marcus Garvey’s helped immensely in publishing the African American writing. Harlem renaissance gave African American visibility and opportunity for publications. With the help of this published poetry, short stories, and essays sent in by black writers, and it encouraged them to do more, such as write, and make all forms of art, because expression was one way to freedom. The Harlem Renaissance was a transformable period in time when poetry changed a nation of African-Americans to an incredible level. Langston Hughes was one of the leading black writers in that time period, and wrote many different types of literature. He wrote, and created a new literary art form called jazz poetry¹². His poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," provides solid unity for the African American history. His poetry covered the issues faced by African-Americans with a combination of music, cheerfulness, and culture. Hughes essay spoke to the concerns of the Harlem Renaissance as it celebrated African American creative innovations such as blues, spirituals, jazz, and literary work that engaged African American life. for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain” (1926) that black artists should be able to express themselves freely as an individual, i.e. an artist work should be looked at not by what color the skin of the artist is, but by the meaning and the quality of the work. He wants the African American artists to realize who they are as an individual artist and person, not just color in the background of life. Another African American poet who was a leading figure in Harlem Renaissance is Countee Cullen (1903-1946). He also dealt powerfully with racial themes in poems like "Black Christ," the story of a lynching victim who returns to life to speak of his ordeal. Through his poetry and books, he promoted equality, condemned racism and injustice, and celebrated African American culture and spirituality. The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. 1917 saw the premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured negro actors' conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the blackface and minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the most important single event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theatre."¹³ Another landmark came in 1919, when Claude McKay published his militant sonnet "If We Must Die". Although the poem never alluded to race, to negro readers it sounded a note of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynching then taking place. By the end of the First World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay was describing the reality of contemporary negro life in America. Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.

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