fitting and OC training. The second 5-day period included 3 OC test sessions and 3 laboratory evaluation sessions (reported else-
where). The 21-day accommodation period allowed for 7-day accommodation for each of the 3 study feet.
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47
Energy-Storing and Shock-Adapting Prosthetic Feet in Transtibial Amputees
(12) Attic and Pete
’s Dragon
(13) Monkey Bars
(14) Over/Under Walls
(15) Angle Tube
(16) Rope Traverse
(17) SWAT Ladder
(18) Sprint Finish
Study Schedule
For the individual TTA subject, the study commitment
involved 5 weeks of activity (Fig. 2) as follows:
Preparation period: Following enrollment and consent,
the preparation period commenced. This was a 5-day ses-
sion. The daily itinerary was as follows:
Monday: First meeting with a study prosthetist to initiate
duplication of preferred socket. Preliminary
fitting, adjust-
ment, and alignment of 3 prosthetic feet began on comple-
tion of socket duplication.
Tuesday: First training visit to OC. Subjects trained on OC
sequence, completion technique, and safety. Visit with
study prosthetist as needed.
Wednesday: Finalize prosthetic
fittings adjustments and
alignments.
Thursday: Second visit to OC. While supervised, subjects
physically practiced OC. Visit with study prosthetist as
needed.
Friday: Final meeting with study investigators, OC person-
nel, and study prosthetist.
Review accommodation period. Discuss and schedule the
testing period.
Accommodation period: See
“Prosthetic Fitting and
Accommodation Period
” section above.
FIGURE 3.
Obstacle Course Map. This diagram shows the general lane and obstacle
flow and sequence. It was provided to all participants in advance of
initiating training and testing. Obstacle no. 2., the Rope Climb, is shown in this
figure but was eliminated for safety reasons (see results section). Instructions
for completion of this task during the training portion of the study were to vertically ascend the rope and touch the top pipe with a hand.
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Energy-Storing and Shock-Adapting Prosthetic Feet in Transtibial Amputees
Testing period: Following accommodation, the testing
period commenced. The testing period was a 5-day session
as follows:
Monday: OC test 1 of 3 (randomized foot assignment)
Tuesday: Biomechanical and bioenergetic laboratory tests
(reported elsewhere)
Wednesday: OC test 2 of 3 (randomized foot assignment)
Thursday: Biomechanical and bioenergetic laboratory tests
(reported elsewhere)
Friday: OC test 3 of 3 (randomized foot assignment)
Biomechanical and bioenergetic laboratory testing involved
minimal walking and running at comfortable speeds suf
fi-
cient to achieve steady state yet insuf
ficient to confound
recovery between
field test days. For control subjects, OC
testing was completed in a single session. This is because of
their routine (i.e., weekly) practice, assessment, and instruc-
tion with the course.
Outcome Measures
Demographic information, anthropometric measures, fully
assembled prosthetic masses, and
final alignments (i.e., sagit-
tal and coronal distances from LASAR line to manufacturer
’s
recommended foot reference location) were recorded during
the testing period before performance data collection. Using
an ad hoc rating scale, subjects were also asked to rate their
activity level (i.e., sedentary, minimally, moderately, or
highly active) as well as to quantify the number and type of
activity bouts per week and the number of years of participa-
tion. Subjects then completed the
field OC, one time per foot
(three times total) to determine total time-to-completion and
per-task completion times. Time data were recorded using
laser timing gates (Brower TC-Gates, Brower Timing Systems,
Power Systems, LLC, Knoxville, Tennessee) situated in front
of and behind each obstacle on the OC.
25
As subjects would
pass between the laser gates, times were triggered and recorded
into a data
file for later aggregation and processing. Immedi-
ately following each individual OC completion, subjects were
asked to rate their perceived exertion (RPE) using the Borg
(6
–20) scale
26
for the entire course with the respective foot
condition. Following the third and
final OC completion, TTAs
were asked to indicate which of the three feet conditions they
preferred to utilize in order to complete the OC.
Statistical Analyses
Sample size and power calculations were based on effect
sizes calculated from performance outcomes (i.e., walking
speed, oxygen uptake, lower limb joint kinetics, and per-
ceived exertion) previously published regarding comparable
high-functioning feet (e.g., Re-Flex Shock, Vari
flex, Ossur,
Reykjavek, Iceland) in basic mobility tasks.
7,13,27
These esti-
mates provided that 10 TTA subjects would adequately
power the study with
β = 0.80. Given the available data are
from basic walking and running, the resulting sample esti-
mates were regarded as conservative. Therefore, planning
for attrition and accounting for the conservative estimates
provided from basic mobility data, recruitment was set at
14 TTA participants. Following all assessments, data were
entered into a database and veri
fied before analysis. Sub-
jects
’ performance data within a given condition (i.e.,
Vari
flex) were averaged (and variance calculated) to repre-
sent that condition for further analysis and comparison
across conditions and between groups. Descriptive statistics
were calculated (i.e., means, standard deviations) where
possible. Continuous data (i.e., OC time to completion)
were examined for normalcy and outliers using NCSS/
PASS
’s omnibus calculation of skewness and kurtosis
(2004 edition, Kaysville, Utah). A within subjects
’ repeated
measures analysis of variance model was used to reveal sta-
tistical differences in performance between prosthetic feet
conditions (dependent comparisons). Differences between
control and experimental subjects were independent com-
parisons and thus ineligible for comparison using the
repeated measures analysis of variance model. Therefore,
depending on their distribution, either independent samples
t tests (normally distributed data eligible for parametric
analyses) or the Mann
–Whitney U test was used to identify
statistically signi
ficant differences between TTA and non-
amputee controls (as independent comparisons per foot con-
dition). The protocol
’s a priori level of significance was
0.05. All comparative statistical analyses were performed
using SPSS 2012 v.20 (Armonk, New York). Finally, effect
size was calculated using Cohen
’s d
28
and interpreted as
d ≥ 0.20 represents a small effect, d ≥ 0.50 represents a
medium effect, and d
≥ 0.80 represents a large effect
FIGURE 4.
All subjects were instructed to complete the course as fast as
possible and as safely as possible. Subject is pictured traversing Angle Wall
instructed to ascend the angle wall and either climb down the ladder on the
back side or hop to the ground.
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Energy-Storing and Shock-Adapting Prosthetic Feet in Transtibial Amputees
provided the related
finding was statistically significant.
Results were unmasked following all statistical analyses.
RESULTS
Subjects
A total of 28 participants provided informed consent and
completed the protocol (i.e., no missing data). Of these,
14 were TTAs and the other 14 were members of the local
Sheriff
’s SWAT team who served as nonamputee control
subjects. The 14 TTAs included 5 Army Veterans, 3 Marine
Corps Veterans, 3 accomplished civilian athletes, 2 active
duty Army soldiers, and 1 active duty Air Force airman.
TTAs lost their limbs 8.9 ± 10.5 (mean ± SD) years before
enrollment primarily because of exposure to blasts from
improvised explosive devices. Two of the civilian TTAs lost
their limbs because of trauma and one was a congenital
amputee. TTA subjects
’ mean age (31.4 years ± 5.9) was
signi
ficantly ( p ≤ 0.05) younger than controls (38.5 years ±
5.1). The TTA
’s body mass index was 28.4 ± 6.7 kg/m
2
compared to controls
’ 26.3 ± 2.9 kg/m
2
( p > 0.05).
Although 66.7% of TTAs rated themselves as highly active,
only 35.7% of controls rated themselves as highly active
( p > 0.05). Self-reported activity (years and no. of bouts/
week) was not signi
ficantly different between TTAs and
controls, however, duration/bout was ( p
≤ 0.05). Control
subjects reported physical training of 2 to 5 bouts per week
(3.1 ± 1.1) related to their work, whereas TTAs reported
3.5 ± 1.2 (range: 1.0
–5.0) bouts per week. TTAs reported
training duration of 62.7 ± 24.3 minutes compared to 42.5 ±
16.3 reported by controls.
Prosthetic Characteristics
TTAs reported using 0.9 ± 0.9 (range: 0
–3) additional rec-
reational prostheses for the following activities; cycling,
jogging/running, skiing, snowboarding, rock climbing, swim-
ming, kayaking, soccer, and cross-
fit exercise, which consti-
tuted much of the aforementioned physical training. Sagittal
and coronal alignment of prosthetic feet setup for the study
were to manufacturer speci
fication and were not signifi-
cantly different between conditions ( p > 0.05). In terms of
prosthetic suspension, 9 subjects used a sleeve and 5 used a
pin lock. Two of the subjects using pin suspension also used
auxiliary suspension (one suction pin and one sleeve). All
subjects used a total surface bearing socket design. Re-Flex
Rotate (1.92 kg ± 1.10) made prostheses signi
ficantly
heavier ( p < 0.05; without socks/shoes) than the Vari
flex
(1.67 kg ± 0.96) and the Elite Blade (1.52 kg ± 0.96).
OC Timing Data
The OC includes 18 tasks. During the preparation period,
the
fitting and accommodation week, it became clear during
OC practice that TTAs were greatly challenged by obstacle
no. 2, the rope climb (Fig. 2, OC map). There were numer-
ous potential reasons including an inability to move the
prosthetic ankle-foot system suf
ficient to use the feet to ele-
vate the body and assist the upper limbs during climbing.
Thus, SWAT operators determined the rope climb obstacle
required elimination from further practice and evaluation for
safety reasons. Removing the rope climb obstacle reduced
the total number of tasks from 18 to 17 for both the TTAs
and the control group. Following removal of the rope climb
obstacle, total OC completion times (mean ± SD) were simi-
lar ( p > 0.05) between prosthetic feet: Elite-Blade (419 sec-
onds ± 130), Vari
flex (425 seconds ± 144), and Re-Flex
Rotate (444 seconds ± 220). Controls
’ total OC completion
time was 287.2 seconds ± 58 which was less ( p
≤ 0.05)
than TTA times. In total, controls had signi
ficantly faster
completion times ( p
≤ 0.05) compared to all 3 prosthetic
feet conditions in 13 of 17 obstacles (Table I).
The Re-Flex Rotate had two additional obstacles that
were signi
ficantly different ( p ≤ 0.05) than controls. The
Elite Blade had one additional obstacle that required more
time to complete. In terms of per-obstacle completion time
differences between prosthetic feet, only two obstacles
yielded differences: (1) climbing the chain-link fence and
(2) the sprint
finish. Climbing the chain-link fence required
greater time with the Vari
flex than it did with the Elite Blade
(14.0 seconds ± 4.9 vs. 12.4 seconds ± 4.6; p
≤ 0.05). The
sprint
finish took significantly longer ( p ≤ 0.05) to complete
with the Re-Flex Rotate (6.6 seconds ± 1.7) than it did with
either the Vari
flex (5.9 seconds ± 1.1) or the Elite Blade
(5.9 seconds ± 1.4).
Perceptive Measures
Median RPE values were signi
ficantly lower ( p ≤ 0.05) for
controls (17; range: 14
–17) than TTA regardless of foot
condition (Vari
flex 18.5[15–20], Elite Blade 18.5[13–20],
and Re-Flex Rotate 18[15-20]). Finally, when asked to rate
their preference of foot for completing the OC, 7/14 sub-
jects (50%) preferred the Elite Blade, 5/14 (36%) preferred
the Re-Flex Rotate, and the remaining 2/14 (14%) preferred
the Vari
flex.
DISCUSSION
We hypothesized that the lightest weight foot would
outperform other prosthetic foot alternatives and be the most
preferred. We further hypothesized that nonamputees would
outperform TTAs in all physical performance measures. The
Elite Blade was the foot with the lowest mass, but it was not
signi
ficantly different than the Variflex.
TTA subjects in this study are representative of combat
injured military personnel and similar to TTAs from other
studies of persons who have lost limbs in military service,
in terms of demographic and anthropometric characteris-
tics.
1,2,4,6,29
Among the more obvious results from this
study were the differences in performance between TTA and
control. TTAs were younger than controls by approximately
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50
Energy-Storing and Shock-Adapting Prosthetic Feet in Transtibial Amputees
7 years; however, controls had the advantage of familiarity
and routine training on the OC facility. This familiarity con-
trols had with the OC may account for some of the difference
in performance; however, large performance differences
between amputees and nonamputees are observed in multiple
other reports.
13,30
In 1995, approximately 2% of soldiers with major limb
amputation returned to duty. With regard to OEF/OIF, there
was an eight-fold increase (16%) of soldiers with amputation
returning to duty.
6,31
One means for a soldier with amputa-
tion to demonstrate function beyond basic ambulation may
be completing a military equivalent OC with performance
comparable to nonamputees. For military applications, OCs
are used to simulate impediments to tactical soldier move-
ment that might be found in urban or rural settings.
25,32
OC
completion speed may relate to
fitness components such as
upper and lower body aerobic and anaerobic power, muscu-
lar strength and endurance, and less quanti
fiable skill attri-
butes such as agility and technique.
23,25
In military training,
OCs have many intended functions including improving
fit-
ness, agility, con
fidence, and camaraderie.
23,25
Utilization of
timed OCs for military performance assessment is important
as multiple physiologic attributes contribute to overall per-
formance in these tests and a tactical unit can only move as
fast as it is slowest member.
17,21,25,32
Therefore, removing
the rope climb obstacle was a salient point in this study.
SWAT operators
’ safety decision to eliminate the obstacle
raised concern over the ability of TTAs, as a group, to com-
plete the course. During training and accommodation, a
small number of the TTA group were able to complete the
task largely as an exclusively upper limb activity. This was
not advised by the trainers because many of the remaining
obstacles require vigorous, reliable use of the upper limbs or
a combination of upper and lower limbs. Therefore, com-
pleting the rope climb exclusively with the upper limbs cre-
ated notable fatigue and compromised performance during
the remainder of the course while participants were training
and practicing. Hence, use of the feet to assist with the rope
climb was advised. Unfortunately, TTAs were unable to
oppose their prosthetic feet and ankles to create suf
ficient
friction to enable the lower extremities to assist the upper
limbs in lifting during the climb. This presented an obvious
limitation of existing feet and ankle systems for TTAs in this
task. It also prevented the TTAs, as a group to be able to
complete the course as originally designed. This, in addition
to the 31% to 35% difference in overall performance, further
highlights some of the impairment created by TTA. How-
ever, a few individuals in the TTA group were able to com-
plete the course as designed. Although group analyses were
necessary in order to meet study objectives, individual anal-
yses may reveal considerable differences between TTAs.
This observation that some individuals could complete the
course, supports individual assessment for making return to
duty determinations following injury related to combat or
other facets of military service.
The mean number of additional arti
ficial limbs used by
subjects in this study was lower than that reported else-
where.
33
In this study, TTAs reportedly used approximately
1 additional recreational prosthesis, thus having 2 prostheses
in service, whereas others have reported an average of
3 prostheses. Although these two studies disagree over one
additional prosthesis, the present study demonstrates an
TABLE I.
Time to Completion Data
Obstacle
Variflex
Elite Blade
Re-Flex Rotate
Control
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Jacob
’s Ladder
32.9
12.8
31.8
15.6
29.6
10.2
22.0*
8.2
Balance Beam
11.6
3.7
11.3
3.3
10.9
2.7
8.4*
1.7
A-Frame
39.6
14.4
37.0
11.6
36.6
13.9
23.4*
5.7
Culverts
14.0
3.8
14.4
†
3.9
14.4
†
3.3
12.0
1.8
Fence
14.0
‡
4.9
12.4
4.6
13.2
4.0
8.6*
2.6
Rope Bridge
29.7
11.3
26.9
8.0
27.6
7.9
19.5*
5.2
Cargo Net
57.1
20.0
62.4
27.1
57.9
23.7
37.1*
6.9
High Step
13.9
5.5
12.4
2.9
12.1
2.4
9.8*
1.6
Angle Wall
11.7
4.8
11.1
3.5
14.9
17.0
7.0*
2.4
Slalom
14.2
3.5
13.6
3.0
14.5
3.2
13.8
1.6
Pete
’s Dragon
58.7
28.3
56.1
17.5
69.9
73.2
38.5*
7.6
Monkey Bars
20.7
8.4
20.9
7.2
21.7
8.4
14.5*
4.7
Over/Under Walls
20.9
11.4
19.5
6.6
19.4
8.3
14.3*
3.1
Angle Tube
17.1
9.9
16.6
7.4
21.3
†
23.5
11.5
3.2
Rope Traverse
36.8
15.0
41.4
22.0
44.5
26.6
26.3*
9.6
SWAT Ladder
25.9
12.7
25.1
9.4
29.0
20.5
15.5*
4.7
Sprint Finish
5.9
1.1
5.9
1.4
6.6
‡§
1.7
5.1
0.8
Total Time
424.7
143.9
418.9
130.2
443.9
219.9
287.2*
58.4
Time data are in seconds. Effect sizes (Cohen
’s d) was large (d ≥ 0.80) for all statistically significant comparisons between prosthetic feet conditions and
controls; small (d = 0.34) for signi
ficant comparisons between Variflex and Elite Blade; and medium (d = 0.53) for significant comparisons of Elite Blade
with Re-Flex Rotate. *p
≤ 0.05 compared to all prosthetic feet conditions. †p ≤ 0.05 compared to controls. ‡p ≤ 0.05 compared to Elite Blade. §p ≤ 0.05
compared to Vari
flex.
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51
Energy-Storing and Shock-Adapting Prosthetic Feet in Transtibial Amputees
objective level of utilization of these additional recreational/
exercise prostheses and that their prescription appears to have
the bene
fit of permitting the maintenance of high functional
performance. That is, subjects in this study reported use of
exercise prostheses, as opposed to their daily function limb, is
what was used to maintain their
fitness such that they were
able to complete this rigorous OC with minimal modi
fication.
Prosthetic socket design (total surface bearing) was con-
sistent across all subjects, whereas suspension was not. That
is, 64% of study prostheses were suspended via sleeve and
the remaining 35% were suspended with a pin mechanism.
There were no skin issues or subjective complaints at any
point during the study to suggest suspension was a factor; Dostları ilə paylaş: |