Ministry of higher and secondary special educaion of the republic of uzbekistan

Figure 2. Rating a child's early attempts at writing (Clay, 1993)

Language Level

Record the highest level of linguistic organization used by the child: 1. Alphabetical 2. Word (any recognizable word) 3. Word group (any two-word phrase) 4. Sentence (any simple sentence) 5. Punctuated story (of two or more sentences) 6. Paragraphed story (two themes)

Message Quality

Record the number for the best description on the child's sample: 1. He has a concept of signs (uses letters, invents letters, used punctuation 2. He has a concept that a message is conveyed 3. A message is copied 4. Repetitive use of sentence patterns such as "Here is a…" 5. Attempts to record own ideas 6. Successful composition

Directional Principles

Record the number of the highest rating for which there is no error in the sample of the child's writing: 1. No evidence of directional knowledge 2. Part of the directional pattern is known: start top left, move left to right, or return down left 3. Reversal of the directional pattern (right to left and return down right) 4. Correct directional pattern 5. Correct directional pattern and spaces between words 6. Extensive text without any difficulties of arrangement and spacing of text

A simple curriculum-based measure of fluency is total number of words written during a short writing assignment. When fluency is the focus, misspellings, poor word choice, and faulty punctuation are not considered. Attention is only directed to the student's facility in translating thoughts into words. A baseline of at least three writing samples should be collected and the total number of words counted for each. For the purpose of evaluation, this total can be compared with those of proficient writers of the same age or grade level. However, total words may be used best in monitoring the student's progress, comparing performance with his or her own previous fluency.
A resulting IEP objective might be written like this: After a group prewriting discussion with the teacher, Daniel will write original narrative compositions of [40] words or more. A rough guideline for setting the criterion can be established from research reported by Deno, Mirkin, and Wesson (1984) and Parker and Tindal (1989):

• 
  If the total number of words is less than 20, aim for doubling it by the end of the school year.
  
• 
  If the number of words is between 25 and 30, aim for a 50% increase.
  
• 
  If the number of words is between 35 and 45, aim for a 25% increase.
  
• 
  If the number of words is greater than 50, choose another objective.
  

Content
Content is the second factor to consider in the writing product. Content features include the composition's organization, cohesion, accuracy (in expository writing), and originality (in creative writing). General questions the classroom teacher can ask regarding a composition's organization include:

1. 
   Is there a good beginning sentence?
   
2. 
   Is there a clear ending?
   
3. 
   Is there a logical sequence of subtopics or events?
   
4. 
   Cohesion questions include:
   
5. 
   Does the writer stick to the topic?
   
6. 
   Is it clear what words like it, that, and they refer to?
   
7. 
   Does the writer use key words that cue the reader to the direction of the discourse (First… , Then… , Therefore… , On the other hand… )?
   

Originality is assessed through questions like:

1. 
   Did the writer attempt humor?
   
2. 
   Did the writer present a unique point of view?
   

Analytical scales are the best way to lend some objectivity to evaluation of content. One can choose from a general rating scale, appropriate to almost any writing assignment, or one tailored to a specific genre or text structure. Spandel and Culham (1993) developed an analytical trait scoring guide for six aspects of writing, three of which address content: Ideas and content, organization, and voice. (Voice refers to the author's own unique personality, style, and honesty reflected in the writing.) Each of these traits is scored on a five-point scale. For example, organization is scored using the following guidelines:
The organization enhances and showcases the central idea or storyline. The order, structure or presentation of information is compelling and moves the reader through the text. The organizational structure is strong enough to move the reader through the text without undue confusion. The writing lacks a clear sense of direction. Ideas, details or events seem strung together in a loose or random fashion-or else there is no identifiable internal structure. (Spandel & Culham, 1993). To promote agreement between raters, each of the guidelines above is further defined by specific criteria (or rubrics). A rating of 3, for example, requires these attributes:
The paper has a recognizable introduction and conclusion. The introduction may not create a strong sense of anticipation; the conclusion may not tie up all loose ends. Sequencing is usually logical, but may sometimes be so predictable that the structure takes attention away from the content.
Through the above mentioned ways the language teacher can assess the writing skill, though the writer sometimes spurts ahead too quickly or spends too much time on details that do not matter. Transitions often work well; at other times, connections between ideas are fuzzy. The organization sometimes supports the main point or storyline; at other times, the reader feels an urge to slip in a transition or move things around. (Spandel & Culham, 1993).