[CAS 8001-79-4] and niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L. fil.) Cass.) oils
killed the weed within 3–4 days, and mustard (Brassica juncea
(L.) Czernjaew) oil required 5 days to kill the bud.
51
Essential oils of various varieties of oregano (Origanum spp.)
and basil (Ocimum basilicum) have been tested against barnyard-
grass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.) and common lambsquar-
ter (Chenopodium album L.) with some success.
52
These oils, which
are composed primarily of p-cymene (20–25%),
c
-terpinene
(15–20%), thymol (10–35%), have been patented for moss control
(
Fig. 2.2
).
53
Manuka oil is isolated from the leaves of Leptospermum scopa-
rium. It is composed of sesquiterpenes (up to 70%)
54
and is rich
in b-triketones.
55,56
Leptospermone [CAS # 567-75-9] (
Fig. 2.2
),
the most abundant triketone of these oils, causes bleaching of
the foliage of grasses and broadleaf plants.
57,58
These natural
triketones are structurally similar to some synthetic herbicides
(e.g., sulcotrione and mesotrione) and have the same molecular
target
site,
namely
p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate
dioxygenase
(HPPD).
59,60
2.1.5. Prospects of natural products used in organic agriculture
The use of organic weed management tools may be enhanced in
the context of an integrated pest management program that
include sowing multiple crops, extended rotation cycles, mulching,
and soil cultivation and cover. However, as opposed to traditional
synthetic herbicides, none of the natural herbicidal compounds
allowed for use in organic agriculture are very active; therefore,
they must be applied in relatively large quantities. This may lead
to undesirable effects on the environment and the soil fauna and
microbes, which is in direct opposition with the philosophical posi-
tions and purpose of those who practice organic agriculture. As
well, these weed management tools have very little crop selectivity
and still require laborious application methods to ensure they do
not come in contact with the desired crop. Finally, organic weed
management methods may be possible in small scale farming
and high-value crops but do not seem feasible in the production
of the agronomic crops such as grains grown on large-scale farming
enterprises.
2.2. Conventional cropping systems
Discovery programs by the agrochemical industry are mostly
driven by large-scale synthetic programs followed by screening
to identify potential new herbicides. Most companies have a more
modest effort to evaluate natural products from outside sources
and, to a lesser extent, from in-house isolation efforts. While the
literature is replete with reports of the isolation and characteriza-
tion of phytotoxins from many sources, and many of these com-
pounds have been patented for potential use as herbicides,
61
the
use of natural or natural product-derived herbicides in conven-
tional agriculture is limited.
2.2.1. Bialaphos
Bialaphos [CAS 35597-43-4] (
Fig. 2.3
), a tripeptide obtained
from the fermentation culture of the actinomycete Streptomyces
hygroscopis, is the only true commercialized natural product herbi-
cide. It is a proherbicide that is metabolized into the active ingre-
dient
L
-phosphinothricin [3559-44-5] (
Fig. 2.3
) in the treated
plant.
62
Phosphinothricin is also produced synthetically as a race-
mic mixture of
L
- and
D
-phosphinothricin for commercialization
as glufosinate [51276-97-2] (Basta
Ò
, Liberty
Ò
).
Bialaphos and phosphinothricin inhibit glutamine synthetase.
Inhibition of glutamine synthetase, which is necessary for the pro-
duction of glutamine and for ammonia detoxification, is lethal to
plants. Plants exposed to glufosinate have reduced glutamine and
increased ammonia levels in their tissues, which stops photosyn-
thesis and results in plant death.
19,63
Phosphinothricin is translocated symplastically and apoplasti-
cally throughout treated plants and it is not susceptible to meta-
bolic degradation. While these are the only products available to
have this mode of action, other natural products such as
tabtoxine-b-lactam (CAS 40957-90-2), oxetin (CAS 94818-85-6),
phosalacin (CAS 92567-89-0) and methionine sulfoximine (CAS
15985-39-4) (
Fig. 2.3
) also target this enzyme.
62
Both bialaphos and phosphinothricin are broad-spectrum post-
emergence herbicides that can be used for total vegetation control
in many agricultural settings, or in non-cultivated areas and to des-
iccate crops before harvest. Because glufosinate is a broad-spec-
trum herbicide (little to no selectivity), it is often marketed along
with genetically engineered glufosinate-resistant crops (soybean,
corn and cotton).
63
These plants were transformed with a micro-
bial pat transgene (phosphinothricin acetyl transferase) that detox-
ifies the inhibitor. While transgenic crops are not accepted in some
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