as good potential substitutes for these traditional approaches.
In the two-assets case, the 1/n portfolio is such that w
∗
1/n
=
1
2
. It is thus only
when the volatilities of the two assets are equal, σ
1
= σ
2
, that the 1/n and the ERC
7
portfolios coincide. For the minimum-variance portfolio, the unconstrained solution
is given by w
∗
mv
= σ
2
2
− ρσ
1
σ
2
/ σ
2
1
+ σ
2
2
− 2ρσ
1
σ
2
. It is straightforward to show
that the minimum-variance portfolio coincide with the ERC one only for the equally-
weighted portfolio where σ
1
= σ
2
.
For other values of σ
1
and σ
2
,
portfolio weights
will dier.
In the general n-assets context, and a unique correlation, the 1/n portfolio is
obtained as a particular case where all volatilities are equal. Moreover, we can show
that the ERC portfolio corresponds to the MV portfolio when cross-diversication is
the highest (that is when the correlation matrix reaches its lowest possible value)
4
.
This result suggests that the ERC strategy produces portfolios with robust risk-
balanced properties.
Let us skip now to the general case. If we sum up the situations from the point
of view of mathematical denitions of these portfolios, they are as follows (where
we use the fact that MV portfolios are equalizing marginal contributions to risk; see
Scherer, 2007b):
x
i
= x
j
(1/n)
∂
x
i
σ (x) = ∂
x
j
σ (x)
(mv)
x
i
∂
x
i
σ (x) = x
j
∂
x
j
σ (x)
(erc)
Thus, ERC portfolios may be viewed as a portfolio located between the 1/n and the
MV portfolios. To elaborate further this point of view, let us consider a modied
version of the optimization problem (7):
x (c)
=
arg min
√
x Σx
(8)
u.c.
n
i=1
ln x
i
≥ c
1 x = 1
x ≥ 0
In order to get the ERC portfolio, one minimizes the volatility of the portfolio subject
to an additional constraint,
n
i=1
ln x
i
≥ c
where c is a constant being determined
by the ERC portfolio. The constant c can be interpreted as the minimum level
of diversication among components which is necessary in order to get the ERC
portfolio
5
. Two polar cases can be dened with c = −∞ for which one gets the MV
portfolio and c = −n ln n where one gets the 1/n portfolio. In particular, the quantity
ln x
i
, subject to
x
i
= 1
, is maximized for x
i
= 1/n
for all i. This reinforces the
interpretation of the ERC portfolio as an intermediary portfolio between the MV and
the 1/n ones, that is a form of variance-minimizing portfolio subject to a constraint
of sucient diversication in terms of component weights. Finally, starting from this
4
Proof of this result may be found in Appendix A.1
5
In statistics, the quantity −
x
i
ln x
i
is known as the entropy. For the analysis of portfolio
constructions using the maximum entropy principle, see Bera and Park [2008]. Notice however that
the issue here studied is more specic.
8
new optimization program, we show in Appendix A.3 that volatilities are ordered in
the following way:
σ
mv
≤ σ
erc
≤ σ
1/n
This means that we have a natural order of the volatilities of the portfolios, with the
MV being, unsurprisingly, the less volatile, the 1/n being the more volatile and the
ERC located between both.
3.5 Optimality
In this paragraph, we investigate when the ERC portfolio corresponds to the Maxi-
mum Sharpe Ratio (MSR) portfolio, also known as the tangency portfolio in portfolio
theory, whose composition is equal to
Σ
−1
(µ−r)
1 Σ
−1
(µ−r)
where µ is the vector of expected
returns and r is the risk-free rate (Martellini, 2008). Scherer (2007b) shows that the
MSR portfolio is dened as the one such that the ratio of the marginal excess return
to the marginal risk is the same for all assets constituting the portfolio and equals
the Sharpe ratio of the portfolio:
µ (x) − r
σ (x)
=
∂
x
µ (x) − r
∂
x
σ (x)
We deduce that the portfolio x is MSR if it veries the following relationship
6
:
µ − r =
µ (x) − r
σ (x)
Σx
σ (x)
We can show that the ERC portfolio is optimal if we assume a constant correlation
matrix and supposing that the assets have all the same Sharpe ratio. Indeed, with the
constant correlation coecient assumption, the total risk contribution of component
i
is equal to (Σx)
i
/σ (x) .
By denition, this risk contribution will be the same for
all assets. In order to verify the previous condition, it is thus enough that each
asset posts the same individual Sharpe ratio, s
i
=
µ
i
−r
σ
i
.
On the opposite, when
correlation will dier or when assets have dierent Sharpe ratio, the ERC portfolio
will be dierent from the MSR one.
4 Illustrations
4.1 A numerical example
We consider a universe of 4 risky assets. Volatilities are respectively 10%, 20%,
30% and 40%. We rst consider a constant correlation matrix. In the case of the
1/n strategy, the weights are 25% for all the assets. The solution for the ERC
portfolio is 48%, 24%, 16% and 12%. The solution for the MV portfolio depends on
the correlation coecient. With a correlation of 50%, the solution is x
mv
1
= 100%
.
With a correlation of 30%, the solution becomes x
mv
1
= 89.5%
and x
mv
2
= 10.5%
.
6
Because we have µ (x) = x µ, σ (x) =
√
x Σx
, ∂
x
µ (x) = µ
and ∂
x
σ (x) = Σx/σ (x)
.
9
When the correlation is 0%, we get x
mv
1
= 70.2%
, x
mv
2
= 17.6%
, x
mv
3
= 7.8%
and
x
mv
4
= 4.4%
. Needless to say, the ERC portfolio is a portfolio more balanced in terms
of weights than the mv portfolio. Next, we consider the following correlation matrix:
ρ =
1.00
0.80 1.00
0.00 0.00
1.00
0.00 0.00 −0.50 1.00
We have the following results:
•
The solution for the 1/n rule is:
σ (x) = 11.5%
x
i
∂
x
i
σ (x)
x
i
× ∂
x
i
σ (x)
c
i
(x)
1
25%
0.056
0.014
12.3%
2
25%
0.122
0.030
26.4%
3
25%
0.065
0.016
14.1%
4
25%
0.217
0.054
47.2%
c
i
(x) = σ
i
(x) /σ (x)
is the risk contribution ratio. We check that the volatility
is the sum of the four risk contributions σ
i
(x)
:
σ (x) = 0.014 + 0.030 + 0.016 + 0.054 = 11.5%
We remark that even if the third asset presents a high volatility of 30%, it
has a small marginal contribution to risk because of the diversication eect
(it has a zero correlation with the rst two assets and is negatively correlated
with the fourth asset). The two main risk contributors are the second and the
fourth assets.
•
The solution for the minimum variance portfolio is:
σ (x) = 8.6%
x
i
∂
x
i
σ (x)
x
i
× ∂
x
i
σ (x)
c
i
(x)
1
74.5%
0.086
0.064
74.5%
2
0%
0.138
0.000
0%
3
15.2%
0.086
0.013
15.2%
4
10.3%
0.086
0.009
10.3%
We check that the marginal contributions of risk are all equal except for the
zero weights. This explains that we have the property c
i
(x) = x
i
, meaning
that the risk contribution ratio is xed by the weight. This strategy presents
a smaller volatility than the 1/n strategy, but this portfolio is concentrated in
the rst asset, both in terms of weights and risk contribution (74.5%).
•
The solution for the ERC portfolio is:
σ (x) = 10.3%
x
i
∂
x
i
σ (x)
x
i
× ∂
x
i
σ (x)
c
i
(x)
1
38.4%
0.067
0.026
25%
2
19.2%
0.134
0.026
25%
3
24.3%
0.106
0.026
25%
4
18.2%
0.141
0.026
25%
10
Contrary to the minimum variance portfolio, the ERC portfolio is invested in
all assets. Its volatility is bigger than the volatility of the MV but it is smaller
than the 1/n strategy. The weights are ranked in the same order for the ERC
and MV portfolios but it is obvious that the ERC portfolio is more balanced
in terms of risk contributions.
4.2 Real-life backtests
We consider three illustrative examples. For all of these examples, we compare
the three strategies for building the portfolios 1/n, MV and ERC. We build the
backtests using a rolling-sample approach by rebalancing the portfolios every month
(more precisely, the rebalancing dates correspond to the last trading day of the
month). For the MV and ERC portfolios, we estimate the covariance matrix using
daily returns and a rolling window period of one year.
For each application, we compute the compound annual return, the volatility
and the corresponding Sharpe ratio (using the Fed fund as the risk-free rate) of the
various methods for building the portfolio. We indicate the 1% Value-at-Risk and
the drawdown for the three holding periods: one day, one week and one month. The
maximum drawdown is also reported. We nally compute some statistics measur-
ing concentration, namely the Herndahl and the Gini indices, and turnover (see
Appendix A.4). In the tables of results, we present the average values of these con-
centration statistics for both the weights (denoted as ¯
H
w
and ¯
G
w
respectively) and
the risk contributions (denoted as ¯
H
rc
and ¯
G
rc
respectively). Regarding turnover,
we indicate the average values of T
t
across time. In general, we have preference for
low values of H
t
, G
t
and T
t
. We now review the three sample applications.
Equity US sectors portfolio
The rst example comes from the analysis of a panel of stock market sectoral indices.
More precisely, we use the ten industry sectors for the US market as calculated by
FTSE-Datastream. The sample period stems from January 1973 up to December
2008. The list of sectors and basic descriptive statistics are given in Table 1. During
this period, sectoral indices have trended upward by 9% per year on average. Apart
from two exceptions (Technologies on one side, Utilities on the other side), levels of
volatilities are largely similar and tend to cluster around 19% per year. Correlation
coecients are nally displayed in the remaining colums. The striking fact is that
they stand out at high levels with only 3 among 45 below the 50% threshold. All
in all, this real-life example is characteristic of the case of similar volatilities and
correlation coecients.
Backtests results are summarized in Table 2. The performance and risk statistics
of the ERC portfolio are very closed to their counterpart for the 1/n one, which is
to be expected according to theoretical results when one considers the similarity in
volatilities and correlation coecients. Still, one noticeable dierence between both
11
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the returns of US sector indices
Return
Volatility
Correlation matrix (%)
OILGS
11.9%
22.3%
100
64.7
58.4
51
55.5
54.2
44.7
57.1
51.3
43.7
BMATR
8.6%
21.1%
100
79.9
72.4
68.8
75.6
55.7
59.1
71.7
59.1
INDUS
10%
18.8%
100
77.4
77.1
85.7
65.2
58.8
80.3
75.2
CNSMG
7.2%
19.1%
100
69
78.6
57.2
53.5
69.6
64.2
HLTHC
11%
16.7%
100
78.7
60.2
60.4
72.4
60.3
CNSMS
7.8%
19.4%
100
64.8
56.5
79.9
74.6
TELCM
9.4%
19.7%
100
55.4
63.3
57.7
UTILS
9.7%
14.5%
100
60.1
41.4
FINAN
10%
19.7%
100
63.3
TECNO
7.9%
26.2%
100
Names (codes) of the sectors are as follows: Oil & Gas (OILGS), Basic Materials (BMATR), Indus-
trials (INDUS), Consumer Goods (CNSMG), Healthcare (HLTHC), Consumer Services (CNSMS),
Telecommunications (TELCM), Utilities (UTILS), Financials (FINAN), Technology (TECNO).
remains: while the ERC portfolio is concentrated in terms of weights (see ¯
H
w
and
¯
G
w
statistics), the 1/n competitor is more concentrated in terms of risk contributions
( ¯
H
rc
and ¯
G
rc
). Notice that in both cases (weight or risk), the two portfolios appear
largely diversied since average Herndahl and Gini statistics are small. Again, this
is due to the special case of similarity in volatilities and correlation coecients, as
will be clear later. In terms of turnover, the ERC portfolio is posting higher records
albeit remaining reasonable since only 1% of the portfolio is modied each month.
Turning now to the comparison with the MV portfolio, we observe that the
ERC portfolio is dominated on a risk adjusted basis, due to the low volatility of
MV. Other risk statistics conrm this feature. But the major advantages of ERC
portfolios when compared with MV lie in their diversication, as MV portfolios post
huge concentration, and in a much lower turnover. The latter notably implies that
the return dominance of ERC is probably here underestimated as transaction costs
are omitted from the analysis.
Agricultural commodity portfolio
The second illustration is based on a basket of light agricultural commodities whom
list is given in Table 3. Descriptive statistics as computed over the period spanning
from January 1979 up to Mars 2008 are displayed in Table 3. Typically we are in a
case of a large heterogeneity in volatilities and similarity of correlation coecients
around low levels (0%-10%). Following the theoretical results of the previous sections,
we can expect the various components to get a weight roughly proportionally inverted
to the level of their volatility. This naturally implies more heterogeneity and thus
more concentration in weights than with the previous example and this is what seems
to happen in practice (see ¯
H
w
and ¯
G
w
statistics, Table 4).
12
Table 2: Statistics of the three strategies, equity US sectors portfolio
1/n
mv
erc
Return
10.03%
9.54%
10.01%
Volatility
16.20%
12.41%
15.35%
Sharpe
0.62
0.77
0.65
VaR 1D 1%
−2.58%
−2.04%
−2.39%
VaR 1W 1%
−5.68%
−4.64%
−5.41%
VaR 1M 1% −12.67% −10.22% −12.17%
DD 1D
−18.63%
−14.71%
−18.40%
DD 1W
−25.19%
−17.76%
−24.73%
DD 1M
−30.28%
−23.31%
−28.79%
DD Max
−49.00%
−46.15%
−47.18%
¯
H
w
0.00%
53.61%
0.89%
¯
G
w
0.00%
79.35%
13.50%
¯
T
w
0.00%
5.17%
1.01%
¯
H
rc
0.73%
53.61%
0.00%
¯
G
rc
13.38%
79.35%
0.00%
Table 3: Descriptive statistics of the agricultural commodity returns
Return Volatility
Correlation matrix (%)
CC
4.5%
21.4%
100 2.7
4.2
61.8 51.6 13.9 4.6
9.3
CLC
17.2%
14.8%
100 31.0
4.5
3.5
2.5
0.8
3.7
CLH
14.4%
22.6%
100
7.0
5.9
5.0
-0.7
3.1
CS
10.5%
21.8%
100 42.8 16.2 6.3 10.4
CW
5.1%
23.7%
100 10.9 5.6
7.9
NCT
3.6%
23.2%
100
3.4
7.3
NKC
4.2%
36.5%
100
6.6
NSB −5.0%
43.8%
100
Names (codes) of the commodities are as follows: Corn (CC), Live Cattle (CLC), Lean Hogs (CLH),
Soybeans (CS), Wheat (CW), Cotton (NCT), Coee (NKC), Sugar (NSB).
13
When compared with 1/n portfolios, we see that ERC portfolios dominate both
in terms of returns and risk. When compared with MV portfolios, ERC are dom-
inated on both sides of the coin (average return and volatility). However, this is
much less clear when one is having a look on drawdowns. In particular, ERC port-
folios seem more robust in the short run, which can be supposedly related to their
lower concentration, a characteristic which can be decisively advantageous with as-
sets characterized by large tail risk such as individual commodities.
Table 4: Statistics of the three strategies, agricultural commodity portfolio
1/n
mv
erc
Return
10.2%
14.3%
12.1%
Volatility
12.4%
10.0%
10.7%
Sharpe
0.27
0.74
0.49
VaR 1D 1% −1.97% −1.58% −1.64%
VaR 1W 1% −4.05% −3.53% −3.72%
VaR 1M 1% −7.93% −6.73% −7.41%
DD 1D
−5.02%
−4.40%
−3.93%
DD 1W
−8.52%
−8.71%
−7.38%
DD 1M
−11.8%
−15.1%
−12.3%
DD Max
−44.1%
−30.8%
−36.9%
¯
H
w
0.00%
14.7%
2.17%
¯
G
w
0.00%
48.1%
19.4%
¯
T
w
0.00%
4.90%
1.86%
¯
H
rc
6.32%
14.7%
0.00%
¯
G
rc
31.3%
48.1%
0.00%
The box plot graphs in Figure 1 represent the historical distribution of the weights
(top graphs) and risk contributions (bottom graphs) for the three strategies. Though
the 1/n portfolio is by denition balanced in weights, it is not balanced in terms of
risk contributions. For instance, a large part of the portfolio risk is explained by
the sugar (NSB) component. On the other hand, the MV portfolio concentrates its
weights and its risk in the less volatile commodities. As sugar (NSB) accounts for
less than 5% on average of portfolio risk, a large amount of total risk -slightly less the
40% on average- comes from the exposure in the live cattle (CLC). The ERC looks
as a middle-ground alternative both balanced in risk and not too much concentrated
in terms of weights.
Global diversied portfolio
The last example is the most general. It covers a set representative of the major
asset classes whom list is detailed in Table 5. Data are collected from January 1995
to December 2008. Descriptive statistics are given in Table 5. We observe a large
14
Figure 1: Statistics of the weights and risk contributions
15
heterogeneity, both in terms of individual volatilities and correlation coecients.
This is thus the most general example.
Table 5: Descriptive statistics of the returns of asset classes
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