1 republic of uzbekistan ministry of higher and secondary specialised education

 
 
The list of recommended literature used for compiling tests on 
Comparative Typology of the English and Native languages 
 
1.Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского 
языков. Л., 1979 
2.Бондарко А.В. Грамматическое значение и смысл. Л., 1970 
3.Буранов Ж. Б . Сравнительная типология английского и
тюрских языков. М., 1983 
4. Рождественский Ю .В .Типология слова. М., 196 
5.Яхoнтов С.Е . О морфологической классификации языков. Л., 
1965 
6.Alimova M. Kh . Lectures on Comparative Typology. 2019-2020 . 
Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami. 
 
 
 

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GLOSSARY 
1. Affix - an addition to the root morpheme or the stem of a word in 
order to modify its meaning or create a new word.
2. Agglutination – the addition of the affixal morpheme to the root 
morpheme or the stem in order to form the new word or express the new 
grammatical meaning. At the result of the addition of the affixal 
morpheme to the root morpheme or the stem , neither the main part nor 
the affix changes its sound structure, the limit between the main part 
and the affix is light. At the result of separation of the affix from the 
main part the word does not loose its independence.
3. Agglutinated type of languages is characterized by the following 
features: 
a) suffixes are monosemantic 
b) modifying word is used before the noun 
c) the root of the word doesn't change while being added to the affixal 
morpheme 
d) phonetic changes have their own place in the word formation and 
word changing 
e) suffixes are added to the stem without fusion, that is mechanically; 
every suffix in Uzbek has its own grammatical meaning 
4. Agreement – the head word demands the adjunct to receive all 
prammatical forms which exist in it : number, gender, case
5. In analytic language words taken out of the sentence don't preserve 
their grammatical meaning.Taken out of the sentence they don't demand 
morphological analysis. They have only their nominative meaning. 
They acquire grammatical form only in the structure of the sentence. 
For example, in English the word round (verb, adjective, noun) - 
кружить, круглый, круг. 
6. Grammatical means expressing grammatical meanings outside words
are called analytic forms:word order, combination of the function 
(auxiliary)words with notional ones, inonation 

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7. Analytical word-forms - auxiliary words, which are used to express 
grammatical meanings, are considered to be analytical word-forms, 
performing the same functions as simple word-forms do. Analyzing 
analytical word-forms we should differ morphological analytical word-
forms from those of the syntactic, which perform not morphological but 
syntactic functions in such sentences, as I'm a teacher, The wall is white, 
where the nominal part of the predicate can't enter the binary opposition 
without the auxiliary one. In I shall write/I have written/I have been 
writing and etc., we find the binary opposition between shall write and 
other tense forms given above 
8. Areal limitation of the group of compared languages presupposes that 
comparison is limited by the group of languages belonging to certain 
geographic area. 
9. Areal typology. This branch of linguistic typology deals with 
geographically limited number of languages. 
10. Comparative typology is one of the independent branches of 
linguistic typology. It deals with limited number of languages and also 
defines typological similarities and distinctions among languages 
belonging to different genetic groups. 
11. Compensation, that is, the relation, where if the language disposes 
two ways of expressing the same grammatical phenomena, one can 
suppose that there will be found a language, which uses one of them. 
So, if the order of words in language is grammatically meaningful as it 
is in the English, Turkic, and Mongolian languages, there the attribute 
doesn't agree with the word it modifies in gender, number and case in 
the language. 
12. Cross level approach to comparison is opposed to level isolation and 
was introduced as a method of linguistic comparison. It presupposes 
investigation of all possible means of expression of a chosen categorial 
notion in the system of compared languages. 
13. Declension - inflection of nouns, pronouns, or adjectives for case, 

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number, and gender 
14. Deep and surface identity and non-identity - Under deep and surface 
identity we understand some generalized meaning, which is peculiar to 
the group of compared languages and has different representation on 
surface. 
15. Etalon language. It is a linguistic means with the help of which 
scholar carries out the process of comparing languages. For practical 
purpose etalon language can be divided into maximal and minimal. 
16. Evolutional period - starts with the emerging of the primary 
linguistic works. This period lasted up to the Renaissance Epoch. 
17.Maximal etalon language is the usage of the whole language pattern 
for comparison 
18. Formal approach to comparison. Any typological analyses can be 
produced either in the way of description or by separate system of 
symbols. It is a formalized approach towards typological description.
19. Formal typology studies the units of the expression plan. It is 
connected with all levels of language hierarchy. Formal typology 
studies the periods of the appearance and transformation of information 
from generation to generation. 
20. Genealogical classification studies etic units: concrete sounds, 
words, syntactic units and so on. According to this classification 
languages are grouped into the families, such as Indo-European, 
Semitic, Altaic and so on. 
21. General typology studies the problems of taxonomy, which studies 
the theory of classification and systematization on the basis of 
comparative method. 
22. Genetic closeness means material identity of the group of compared 
languages. For genetic closeness structural and etic-emic identity is 
characteristic. 

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23. Genetic typology deals with the languages which are genetically 
related both synchronically and diachronically. 
24. Government - the relation between a governed and a governing 
word. Head word demands the adjunct to receive the grammatical forms 
not existed in the head word 
25. Grammatical gender: feminine, masculine, neuter - in logic there 
exist two biological sexes: male and female. In grammar they 
correspond to three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, neuter. 
Philosophical sex or gender is real, and grammatical gender is formal. 
They may correspond only when they express animate nouns( on the 
lexical level of the language). 
26. Grammatical-lexical fields are established by E.V, Guliga and E. I. 
Shendels. They coincide with functional-semantic categories partially. 
Grammatical-lexical fields unite vocabulary and grammar for the 
expression of this or that categorial notion. 
27. Identity of etic and emic units - is the coincidence of more concrete 
units of compared languages on etic-emic sublevels. On etic level we 
observe different variants of suffixes of in expressing one and the
28. Inflected type is characterized by the following features: 
a) Inflection is used as the main grammatical signal 
b) Every affixal morpheme can be used in different functions 
c) The end of the stem may undergo changes when they are declining 
or conjugating 
d) The word order is spread differently: 1) it isn't mainly fixed; 2) it is 
fixed, for example, the English language has a fixed word order, 
because in he cause of historical development the inflected English 
language has lost its rich sysem of declension and conjugation and 
Modern English language is considered infleced inclined to be analiical, 
that’s why the order of words in this language is fixed, it is meaningful 
29. Inflection - a change in the form of a word, usually modification or 
affixation, causing change of the root morpheme either on the 
phonological or phonomorphological level of the language in 

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expressing such grammatical functions as tense, voice, mood, person, 
gender, number or case 
30. Influence of translation - While translating from one language into 
another the linguist comes across with certain process of comparison of 
language systems. 
31. Influence of lexicography - While preparing different kinds of 
dictionaries scholars at the same time compare the systems of two or 
more related and non-related languages. 
32. Inner fusion is when the addition of the affixal morpheme changes 
the inside phoneme of the root: child-children
33. Isolated type of languages is characterized by the absence of 
inflections and affixal morphemes expressing the relationship among 
the words in the sentence. 
34. Isomorphism is such a relation that if the problem A is solved in a 
concrete way, the problem В should be solved in this way too. So, if the 
language has many classes of declension as in the old English language, 
in old Russian and in other Indo-European languages, where there were 
several classes of declension, it has several classes of strong verbs and 
three classes of weak ones. 
35. The real language universals were produced in 1961 in the World 
Congress of Linguists by the group of American scholars Joseph 
Greenberg, Lyle Jenkins and Charles Osgood. 
36. Lexical means of expressing grammatical meaning: die- kill 
(intransitive- transitive) 
37. Lexicography is the activity or profession of compiling dictionaries. 
38. Lexical-syntactic means of plurality: a lot of students, much milk. 

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39. Limitation of etalon language is the linguistic phenomenon with 
the help of which we compare different languages. The are two types 
of etalon languages:maximal/minimal 
40. Linguistic -phenomenon relating to language or linguistics 
41. Linguistic typology - is a field of linguistics that studies and 
classifies languages according to their structural and functional 
features. 
42. Linguistic universal is a certain phenomenon or regularity, which is 
common to all languages of the word or to their absolute majority. 
Grammatical categories of case and gender became the main 
grammatical universal for the majority of inflected languages. 
43. Morphological means of expressing plurality: boy-boys 
44. Morphological typology studies the units of morphological level. It 
deals with two types of comparisons: 1) with morphological 
classification; 2) with comparing grammatical categories 
45. Non-linguistic – the phenomenon not relating to language or 
linguistics 
46. Notional categories are established by Danish scholar O. Yespersen 
and Russian linguist I. Meshaninov. They study the relations between 
language and mind. All categories may be of two types: linguistic and 
logical or philosophical. Philosophical categories are primary, 
linguistic categories are secondary. 
47. One-level approach to comparison. The term "level isolation" was 
introduced to linguistics in the 19
th
century. All language phenomena 
were studied on one level of linguistic hierarchy, mainly on phonetic 
and morphological levels. 
48. Perfectness of typological operations. Typological operation 
consists of two stages: 1) analysis; 2) correspondence. On the first stage 
scholars research every language independently. On the second stage 

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all the results of the previous analysis are compared and general laws 
of isomorphic and allomorphic features are revealed. 
49. Phonetic typology deals with the comparison of units of phonetic 
level. It may compare units of related and non-related languages and 
studies the quantity of vowels and consonants, their articulation, 
presence or absence of some sounds, classification of languages 
according to the sounds’ peculiarities. 
50. Phonological typology studies phonological different features, 
phonological universals and so on. It classifies languages according to 
the common phonological features. 
51. Phono-morphological means of expressing nouns’ plurality: child-
children, house-houses 
52. Polysynthetic or incorporated type of languages are characterized 
by the following features: 
a) the word and the sentence coincide 
b) the word and affix coincide 
c) parts of speech are not differentiated. 
53. Port-Royal grammar : In the 17
th 
century French scholars Antoine
Arnauld and Claude Lanslot wrote their Universal or Rational 
Grammar concerning Germanic languages. They compared phonetic, 
grammatical and logical categories in the structures of different 
languages. Port-Royal Grammar is of great importance , because it was 
the first scientific work concerning language universals and the 
systemic investigation of language sysems 
54. Primary grammatical categories are parts of speech. In modern 
English and Uzbek languages parts of speech are classified according 
to the following peculiarities: 1) according to lexical and lexical-
grammatical meanings; 2) according to morphological structure; 3) 
according to the function of words, according to their combineability 
and stem-building elements 
55. Quantitative limitation of compared languages may be of the 

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following types: a) minimal limitation. It means that the limit of 
compared languages is open. This type is used in investigating language 
universals; b) maximal limitation. It means that only two languages may 
be compared. This type is used in comparative typology; c) genetic 
limitation is used in genetic typology and it means that only neighbor 
languages may be compared; d) limitation of certain universals. 
56. Secondary grammatical categories (forms of words) are classified 
according to the plan of meaning (content) and the plan of expression 
(form)followed by function that is, while defining any form of the word 
the linguist should not forget that this form has the meaning expressing 
some function in the sentence 
57. Semantic typology studies two types of meanings: l)lexical 
meaning, which corresponds to the real meaning of the word; 2) 
grammatical meaning, which is more abstract and typical to the whole 
classes of words. 
58. Structural typology is one of the basic branches of linguistic 
typology, which deals with systematization and summarizing some 
general linguistic facts and establishing language universals. 
59. Syntactic typology studies the syntactic structure of different 
languages, which consist of two sublevels: phrase level and sentence 
level. Syntactic typology studies types of syntactic relations,syntactic 
ties and grammatical signals expressing syntactic relations among the 
words in the sentence 
60. Inner fusion, outer fusion: affixation followed by flexion, the 
change of the place of the stress in the word, suppletive forms. These 
are grammatical means expressing grammatical meanings inside words 
and they are called synthetic forms. 
61. In synthetic languages expression of grammatical meanings are 
repeated. For example, in German: das Buch - die Bu’cher, Der Mann 
- die Ma’nner 

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62. System closeness means the identity or non-identity of structural 
types of compared languages. 
63. In modern linguistics, the language is considered to be the system 
of signs. 
64. A three-morpheme structure: In Indo-European languages there was 
a three morpheme structure in the word : root+ stem forming suffix, 
which makes up a stem together with the root and the third morpheme 
is case inflection. Stem-forming suffixes were different, therefore stems 
of the nouns were different too. 
65. Transformation is a process by which an element in the underlying 
logical deep structure of a sentence is converted to an element in the 
surface structure 
66. Typological categories are established by professor Buranov. They 
are connected with typological investigation and consist of the 
typological form and typological meaning. Typological meaning is 
modified as an abstract notion, which lies under the system of languages 
under comparison. 
67. Typological classification is introduced by several linguists who 
treated languages not according to their genetic backgrounds, they are
W. Humboldt, E. Sapir, F.F. Fortunatov. According to the opinion of 
these linguists languages are classified into 5 types:inflected, 
agglutinated, isolated, polysynthetic, agglutinated-inflected 
68. Typological imitation means using certain methods and models of 
one language while studying the system of another language. 
69. Typological theory. Typological operations are accomplished by 
typological theory which is connected with establishing different etalon 
languages(methods) of linguistic investigations. It is also connected 
with description of different language universals which may be 
described in different ways. 
70. Typological categories are interlanguage because they are common 

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to the system of comparing languages. For example, the category of 
number consists of the opposition of singularity and plurality. It is a 
language universal and characterizes majority of languages; English, 
Russian, Uzbek in particular. So the category of number is an 
interlanguage category. 
71. The process of comparison is very complicated with different types 
of languages, where this or that language under comparison has its own 
specific peculiarities. That's why the ways of expression of typological 
categories may be different and in order to reveal them typologist deals 
with all levels while investigating languages, that is interlevelness of 
typological categories. For example, on the morphological level the 
category of number is expressed by suffix- s (es) in English (book-
books, yard-yards, class-classes ), -лар in Uzbek (китоб-китоблар). 
Besides, in English compound nouns form plurality in different ways, 
for example: bookcases, passers - by, and men-of war. 
72. Typological categories are interclass, because their meaning can be 
expressed by means of different lexical-grammatical classes of words. 
73. F. F. Fortunatov's word form theory is taken in the wide sense, that 
is form of words are expressed in two ways: synthetically and 
analytically. Fortunatov's the so called «грамматически частичные 
слова» are considered to be analytical forms. He says the following 
about such forms: «грамматически частичные слова имеют формы, 
которые своими формами изменяют формы другого полного 
слова, соотносительно по значению с известными простыми 
формами полного слова» [Фортунатов Ф.Ф.. Избр. труды, 1965, 
стр. 178]. 
1. The principle terms and notions of contrastive typology. 
Language is the most important and affective means of 
communication. It renders the meaning of the words, modal and 
emotional shades of meanings (the attitude of the speaker to what he is 
saying to his partner and to the situation of speech, towards the 
reality). 

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Typology studies relevant features and general tendencies both in 
related and non-related languages. It studies types of languages and 
types of language structures.
Typology is the science that studies types of languages, it compares 
and correlates the system of languages or groups of languages, levels, 
sublevels, microsystems (e.g. Levels include phonemes, morphemes, 
words, phrases. Sublevels include vowels and consonants; 
microsystems include diphthongs and monophthongs). 
Aims of typology: Typology aims at establishing similar general 
linguistic categories with the classification of different types of 
languages, irrespective of genealogical relationship of languages. Its 
final aims are: 
1) To identify and classify common and distinctive (different) features 
of 
different 
languages; 
2) To identify isomorphic regularities and allomorphic features in the 
languages contrasted (compared). 
3) To establish the typical languages’ structures and types of languages; 
4) To establish the universal phenomena in the languages of the world 
or in the majority of languages 
2) Aspects of typology 
General typology studies the most general, phonetic, morphological, 
lexical and syntactic features in languages which belong to different 
genetic 
groups.
Special typology treats concrete languages, one of which is the native 
language. 
Both general and special typologies study non-related and related 
languages. 
Historical typology studies the historical changes in the structure of 
different languages and compares these historical changes in the cause 
of 
historical 
development. 
The typology of the language levels studies and compares different 
levels 
of 
languages. 
Contrasted typology is based on the method of comparison or 
contrasting. It establishes the most general types of languages on the 
basis of their dominant or common phonetic, morphological, lexical 
and 
syntactic 
features.