Phase 1: Market and technology
opportunities
Phase 2: Product and
business ideas
Phase 3: Draft concept of
product and business plan
Phase 1: Market and technology
opportunities
Phase 2: Product and
business ideas
Phase 3: Draft concept of
product and business plan
P
ro
ject sele
ctio
n
P
ro
ject sele
ctio
n
Derivation of basic and
optional technical, market
and commercial requirements
Definition of basic and optional
functions (technical and
commercial)
Draft product
concept and
business plan
Draft product
concept and
business plan
Proof of technical concept
and business plan (including
solutions for optional
requirements
Id
ea sel
ecti
o
n
Id
ea sel
ecti
o
n
Impulse analysis and
hence problems
definition (technical and
commercial)
Collecting, generating
and consolidating of
product and business
ideas
Id
ea sc
re
ening
Id
ea sc
re
ening
Elaborating of
ideas, feasibility-
checks
Balanced
product
and
business
idea card
Idea
de-
scrip-
tion
Idea
de-
scrip-
tion
Description
of
analysis
of search
areas and
opportunities
S
ear
c
h
are
a an
d
op
po
rt
u
n
it
y
sel
ect
io
n
Feedback loop
Integration of internal and external tacit knowledge carriers (customers, suppliers, production…)
Identification of
company potentials
Analysis of future
needs and
requirements
Identification and
analysis of search
areas
Fig. 6. Integrated front end process model (
Sandmeier et al., 2004
).
A. Brem, K.-I. Voigt / Technovation 29 (2009) 351–367
355
Author's personal copy
be a ‘face-lifting’ of current products and services so that
there is a high probability of competitive threats based on
new or improved technologies (
Bleicher, 1995
). Another
problem is the potential misinterpretation of the market or
administrative problems as requirements of new technolo-
gical solutions (
McLouglin and Harris, 1997
).
At the strategy formulation level, the deficiencies and
shortcomings become even clearer (see
Table 3
).
Despite the different approaches, the distinction between
technology-induced and market-induced is not always well-
defined. Adoption depends on the diffusion trigger as well,
because it can be induced by the vendor through aggressive
marketing and sales activities, or be motivated by problems
or deficiencies in the organizational search for solutions
(
Pennings, 1987
).
The chemical industry of the last century is a good
example for market changes without influencing certain
technologies or market needs. Until the early 1970s,
innovations had been only technology-driven. After the
oil crisis, the situation changed immediately: customer and
market orientation prevailed, and 62% of new products
were market-induced. The next change was in the late
1980s, triggered neither by technology or markets: envi-
ronment protection laws forced companies to develop
new technologies for products not needed until then,
such as chemical filters (
Quadbeck-Seeger and Bertleff,
1995
). Obviously, not all developments can be explained
monocausally through specific market demands or new
technologies. However, it can be stated that companies
which became market leaders with a certain advanced
technology ‘tended to loose’ their dominant market
position by missing the changeover to new technologies
(
Pfeiffer et al., 1997
). Still, distinctions can be made by
periods in which either demand or technology played the
most important role in corporate innovation management
(
Ende and Dolfsma, 2005
). Moreover, there is certain
proof that other key factors influence product innovation
adoption as well: for instance, the entrepreneurial attri-
butes of pro-activeness and risk-taking (
Salavou and
Lioukas, 2003
).
Thus, it is not surprising that there have not been any
convincing theories of models and mechanisms for
technology origins yet (
Geschka, 1995
). Demand side
factors and technology side factors jointly determine a
company’s research success (
Lee, 2003
), and they have to
be permanently adjusted to each other (
Freeman, 1982
).
Therefore, successful products and services rely on the
targeted combination of market pull and technology push
activities (
Hauschildt, 2004
), since the integration of push-
pull factors generally contributes to more innovativeness of
the company (
Munro and Noori, 1988
). In order to achieve
this, for instance, networking competence is identified as a
fundamental success factor (
Gemu¨nden and Ritter, 2001
).
An example of successful implementation is the creation
and use of multi-company collaborative networks, in which
knowledge can be transferred and members of the network
continuously attempt to innovate (
Chesbrough, 2003
).
Collaborations with downstream firms and universities
are particularly improving the chances of success (
Lee and
Park, 2006
).
2.2. Conceptual linkage
As already shown, there are strong interdependencies
between technology push and market pull models; no
simple black and white determinations enable or disable a
certain approach. However, particularly at the corporate
policy level, sustainable strategic procedures are required
to efficiently manage the product and process innovation
development. Therefore, a simplifying ‘overall approach’ is
inadequate; a pragmatic model is needed. For this reason, a
conceptual framework for further considerations will be
introduced.
In the relevant literature, there is a common feeling that
uncertainty is a crucial factor of management through
discontinuous chapters in technological progress and
ongoing new technology paradigms (
Dosi, 1982
;
Tushman
and Anderson, 1986
). In this context, a recently studied
case at Volvo Cars clearly showed the need for uncertainty
reduction without prematurely closing the scope of
innovation (
Bo¨rjesson et al., 2006
). Therefore,
Pearson
(1990)
proposes an innovation strategy dependant on
various kinds of uncertainty. He distinguishes uncertainty
regarding the technical approach (‘means’), the market
focus (‘ends’), and the timing (‘urgency’). So, depending on
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Differentiation between technology push and market pull (
Gerpott, 2005
)
Description/attribute
Technology push
Market pull
Technological uncertainty
High
Low
R&D expenses
High
Low
R&D duration
Long
Short
Sales market-related uncertainty High
Low
Time-to-market
Uncertain/
unknown
Certain/known
R&D customer integration
Difficult
Easy
Kinds of market research
Qualitative-
discovering
Quantitative-
verifying
Need for change of customer
behavior
Extensive
Minimal
Table 3
Summary of deficiencies and shortcomings of technology push and market
pull (
Burgelman and Sayles, 2004
)
Technology push
Market pull
Risk of starting with what can be
researched and evaluated easily
Risk of looking only at needs that
are easily identified but with minor
potential
Risk of addressing the needs of the
atypical user
Continuing to change the
definition of the ‘opportunity’;
‘miss the opportunity’
Potential for getting locked into
one technical solution
Lack of being a ‘champion’ or
‘true believer’
A. Brem, K.-I. Voigt / Technovation 29 (2009) 351–367
356
Author's personal copy
the level of means, ends, and urgency, other kinds of
strategic choices are appropriate (see
Fig. 7
).
Burgelman and Sayles (2004)
suggest three fundamental
elements for an enduring linkage between technology push
and market pull in order to define viable new business
opportunities:
(i) Technology sources: Research only works if the
researcher’s personal interests are being adequately con-
sidered, combined with existing corporate expertise, and
supplemented with continuing the overview of new
technological developments. ‘Bootleg research’ is a way
of pursuing an idea against all organizational odds, but if
there is no applicable workflow processing afterwards, this
kind of research should be avoided.
(ii) Market demand: Marketers must do a permanent
search, especially in all areas of customer dissatisfaction.
Moreover, ongoing evaluations regarding future potential
of new need satisfaction are crucial.
(iii) Relevant problem: Relevant problems are initial
impulses from internal or external sources for innovation,
such as ideas and trends. Other sources or origins of
relevant issues are problems of the operating divisions, as
well as new opportunities created by external events.
Consequently, the managerial initiatives can be defined
in three alternative patterns:
(i) Technology-competence-driven: Scientists look for new
technologies and scientific breakthroughs with accordant
commercialization potential.
(ii) Market-need-driven: Marketing-oriented managers
steer researchers by referring to exciting and interesting
markets with foreseeable high demand.
(iii) Corporate-interest-driven: Defined and professed
‘interests’ of the top management are obligatory. Interests
are more than just strategic issues; they involve operational
subjects as well.
This is not as self-evident as it seems, because manage-
ment often postulates goals and expectations which,
afterwards, they do not support on their own. So, no
matter who seeks to be the proponent of a new idea,
ultimately, it must be encouraged by the upper manage-
ment, even if senior executives are not directly involved in
the innovation processes, but rather work behind the
scenes to ‘pull the strings’ (
Smith, 2007
). In particular, new
venture projects often fall out of the ‘normal’ corporate
strategy, so no matter where the innovative impulse comes
from, it must be accepted by the upper management.
Hence, there is an ongoing need for integrating overall
strategic and operative goals and roadmaps within the
innovation management.
The corporate-interest-driven part is the most difficult
one to implement because, in this case, innovation means
the continuous consideration of the company’s strategic
and operational goals, with successful aggregation between
the demand and potential sphere through precise internal
communication (see
Fig. 8
).
Internal communication is a critical point, insofar as the
timing of information is a crucial element of the coopera-
tion between technology and market. Therefore, typical
risks to detect innovations are based on questions
regarding the right information: what information?, when?,
how processed?, from whom?, what time horizon?, and so
on; to foster communication between the two parties, a
functional abstract procedure is necessary.
On this note, either a technological potential ‘searches’
for different needs or problems to be solved, or a specific
need or problem ‘searches’ for diverse technological
potentials (
Pfeiffer et al., 1997
).
Nevertheless, ‘innovation requires collective action
or efforts to create shared understandings from dispa-
rate perspectives’ (
Dougherty, 1992, p. 195
). Moreover,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Urgency
Ends
Means
Issues raised and implications for strategy
Uncertainty regarding
Generate commitment – rugby team approach, give high priority and provide necessary resources.
High
Low
Low
Prioritize and enter rapidly – use joint ventures and
aquisitions, do not spread resources too widely.
High
High
Low
Requires systematic market analysis – use idea generation techniques, enter markets sequentially.
Low
High
Low
Planned and sequential testing – use alternative approaches, consider doing more background
research.
Low
Low
High
Background, exploratory research – encourage ´free´ activity and `bootlegging`, be open to
opportunities.
Low
High
High
Set up competitive projects – parallel technical activities, buy in technical skills, know when to stop,
but don‘t give up too soon.
High
Low
High
Multiple approaches – spend heavily on basic and exploratory research, try not to get caught in this
area.
High
High
High
Fairly straight forward – maintaining motivation and providing resource is important.
Low
Low
Low
Fig. 7. Different kinds of uncertainty and their consequences on strategy (
Pearson, 1990
).
A. Brem, K.-I. Voigt / Technovation 29 (2009) 351–367
357
Author's personal copy
innovation also depends on factors such as business logic
and environmental dynamics. If there is market turbulence
combined with market-based business logic, customer and
technology linking seems to be a discriminator between low
and high innovation. Innovation under technology turbu-
lence depends on the kind of business logic used: market-
based logic requires the commitment of the employees for
success, whereas technology-based business logic requires
broad technology searching (
Tuominen et al., 2004
).
However, the transition process from technology to
market orientation and vice versa requires a change in
mindset on the part of the innovators (
Ulijn et al., 2001
).
Still, there are examples of succeeding companies (like
Matsushita) which sustainably combine market-oriented
product development capabilities with difficult-to-imitate
technological capabilities for a highly competitive market
position (
Kodama, 2007
).
Finally, the preceding advisements are summarized in
Fig. 9
.
Following
Burgelman and Sayles (2004)
, in this context,
one can conclude that initial impulses for innovation
(‘relevant problems’) are triggered by corporate interest,
technology-competence, and certain market needs. Timing
issues affect all kinds of innovation strategies, no matter
whether the companies are technology-driven (e.g., in the
case of patent expiration) or market-driven (e.g., a product
line at the end of the certain life cycle). Hence, time urgency
is added as a basic variable as well. The (mostly non-linear)
innovation process begins with idea generation, out of the
relevant problem, and ends with successful implementa-
tion, according to
Thom (1980)
. As the internal corporate
innovation process is surrounded and influenced by
external factors, which are crucial for the company’s
innovations (
Brem, 2008
;
Lind, 2002
), they are implicated
as well (
Fahey and Narayanan, 1986
):
(i) political influences (government stability, taxation
policy, social welfare, etc.),
(ii) socialcultural influences (income distribution, consu-
merism, education, etc.),
(iii) environmental influences (protection laws, waste dis-
posal, location, etc.),
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Corporate strategy
Internal
communi-
cation
Current customers
State-of-the-art technologies
„Demand sphere“
„Potential sphere“
Technology-
oriented
divisions
- R&D
- Engineering
- etc.
Market-
oriented
divisions
- Sales
- Marketing
- etc.
Corporate strategy
Fig. 8. Coherence between technology and market sphere (
Pfeiffer et al., 1997
).
(internal)
Technology
competence
Market need
Corporate interest
Innovation
process
Relevant
problems
Time
Innovation
Socialcultural influences
Political influences
Economical influences
Environmental influences
Technological influences
Legal influences
Fig. 9. Triggers and key elements of corporate innovation management.
A. Brem, K.-I. Voigt / Technovation 29 (2009) 351–367
358
Author's personal copy
(iv) economical influences (inflation, income, business
cycles, etc.),
(v) technological influences (government spending on
research, speed of technology transfer, rates of
obsolescence, etc.) and
(vi) legal influences (employment law, product safety,
business legislation, etc.).
This conceptual framework shows the most relevant
factors, but still needs to be validated and developed
further, especially in order to show how the single elements
influence the innovation process and success in detail, as
well as the kind of interferences between the elements
themselves.
3. Case study: a large German company
3.1. Methodology
The following case study is based on extensive analysis
and evaluation of secondary data (corporate documenta-
tion analysis) and interviews with managers of different
departments (R&D, Marketing, Sales, Technology, etc.)
(
Yin, 1981
). Ten qualitative, guided expert interviews were
conducted (
Witzel, 2000
). These interviews lasted between
70 and 90 min individually and over 13 h collectively, not
including time spent on transliteration. Meetings between
managers and researchers on a regular basis were
organized to validate the findings and to recognize further
issues for analysis. Moreover, corporate documentation
analysis was done to validate the information gathered.
For this, the company supplied internal meeting records,
process instructions, and strategy papers.
A single case study was selected because the researched
company can be seen as ‘an extreme or unique case’
(
Yin, 1994
). The company was chosen because of its special
market position and dependence on legislation, as well as
its unique organizational combination of technology and
market, especially with the high regulation influence by the
government. The aim of the research was to get deeper
insights into their innovation management and hence,
implications
for
the
stated
conceptual
framework
(
Eisenhardt, 1989
).
‘Interviews are a highly efficient way to gather rich,
empirical data, especially when the phenomenon of
interest is highly episodic and infrequent’ (
Eisenhardt and
Graebner, 2007, p. 28
). All interviews were semi-structured
and designed appropriately to the research question.
Further input was generated through regular expert meet-
ings with other companies as well. The language of the
questionnaire and the interviews was German.
Identifying actors in organizations is critical and some-
times methodically difficult due to the rapid change of
corporate knowledge, especially through structural shifts of
the responsible individuals (
Carlsson et al., 2002
). There-
fore, the company management was involved to identify
appropriate interview partners. Following the ‘snowball
method’ (
Carlsson et al., 2002
), more interview partners
could be found to make sure that there was no pre-selection
bias. Moreover, the participants were from different
hierarchical levels, functional areas, and company loca-
tions (
Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007
).
Generally, our interview guideline consisted of two
general parts. In the first one, socio-demographic questions
were included (e.g., information about the interviewed
person such as degrees, job description, prior positions,
etc.). The second section is about the specific innovation
management in the company, divided into a personal and a
corporate level. On the personal level, the interviewees were
asked about their definition of innovation, about their own
innovative activities, etc. On the corporate level, they were
questioned about the way they see idea and innovation
management accomplished in the company (e.g., ‘How are
new products generated in your company? Which ways are
they going? Do you have examples?’ or ‘Which incentives
do you have and do you wish to have for fostering idea
generation and implementation?’). The interview guideline,
in its entirety, can be provided upon request.
3.2. Researched case
3.2.1. Background
Persistent innovation and fast change are the best
attributes of the software industry, and not just because
of its dependence on the computer industry. To retain the
status quo (regarding systems, computers, components,
etc.), continuous endeavors are compulsory (
Rubenstein,
1989
). Therefore, a software development and information
technology service provider needs to be up-to-date on all
counts. On one hand, it has to offer software and services
that enable the customer to make use of the technological
status quo. On the other hand, it has to integrate
functionality and support which is the only outcome of
the customer’s needs, independent of the current state-of-
the-art technology. That is why innovation management
causes many difficulties, especially in service environments
(
McDermott et al., 2001
).
3.2.2. General company information
The researched company was founded in Germany in the
1960s. Customers are tax accountants, attorneys, public
accountants, and chartered accountants, as well as their
associated companies. Still, these customers can sell the
products and services to their end-customer as well.
The product portfolio includes software (e.g., for
accounting, audit, personnel management, etc.), services
(e.g., IT-support, print and dispatch-service, etc.) and
consulting (on education, training, management consult-
ing, etc.), offered all over Europe. In 2005, the company
employed more than 5.390 people, with annual sales of
approximately 581 million Euros. The current market
share in Germany is approximately 60–80%.
The company is technology-driven, mainly because of
its origin in programming and coding-specific software
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A. Brem, K.-I. Voigt / Technovation 29 (2009) 351–367
359
|