D. Calhoun’s results have led to other research on crowding’s effects on human beings, and
these research findings have suggested that high density is not the single cause of negative
effects on humans. When crowding is defined only in terms of spatial density (the amount of
space per person), the effects of crowding are variable. However, if crowding is defined in
terms of social density, or the number of people who must interact, then crowding better
predicts negative psychological and physical effects.
E. There are several reasons why crowding makes US feel uncomfortable. One reason is related
to stimulus overload there are just too many stimuli competing for our attention. We cannot
notice or respond to all of them. This feeling is typical of the harried mother, who has several
children competing for her attention, while she is on the phone and the doorbell is ringing. This
leaves her feeling confused, fatigued and yearning to withdraw from the situation. There are
strong feelings of a lack of privacy – being unable to pay attention to what you want without
being repeatedly interrupted or observed by others.
F. Field studies done in a variety of settings illustrate that social density is associated with
negative effects on human beings. In prison studies, males generally became more aggressive
with increases in density. In male prison, inmate; living in conditions of higher densities were
more likely to suffer from fight. Males rated themselves as more aggressive in small rooms (a
situation of high spatial density), whilst the females rated themselves as more aggressive in
large rooms (Stokols et al., 1973). These differences relate to the different personal space
requirements of the genders.
Besides, Baum and Greenberg found that high density leads to decreased attraction, both
physical attraction and liking towards others and it appears to have gender differences in the
impact that density has on attraction levels, with males experiencing a more extreme reaction.
Also, the greater the density is, the less the helping behavior. One reason why the level of
helping behavior may be reduced in crowded situations links to the concept of diffusion of
responsibility. The more people that are present in a situation that requires help, the less often
help is given. This may be due to the fact that people diffuse responsibility among themselves
with no-one feeling that they ought to be the one to help.
G. Facing all these problems, what are we going to do with them? The more control a person
has over the crowded environment the less negatively they experience it, thus the perceived
crowding is less (Schmidt and Keating). The ability to cope with crowding is also influenced by
the relationship the individual has with the other people in the situation. The high density will
be interpreted less negatively if the individual experiences it with people he likes. One of the
main coping strategies employed to limit the impact of high density is social withdrawal. This
includes behaviors such as averting the gaze and using negative body language to attempt to
block any potential intrusions.
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