temic dehydration accompanied by lethargic
confusion progressing into deep stupor or
coma. Generalized, focal, or partial continuous
seizures occur in about one-fifth of the cases,
and focal, stroke-like motor deficits affect about
one-quarter. Laboratory studies disclose severe
hyperglycemia combined with evidence of se-
vere dehydration of body fluids. Perhaps one-
quarter of the patients have a mild to moderate
lactic acidosis, and many have signs of at least
mild renal insufficiency. Untreated, all patients
die, and even the best efforts at therapy fail in
some, largely because of the seriousness of as-
sociated illnesses. Hyperglycemia in and of it-
self can affect cognitive function. In a study of
adults with either type 1 or type 2 diabetes,
blood glucose levels greater than 270 mg/dL
were associated with slow cognitive perfor-
mance tests, impacting around 50% of the 105
subjects investigated.
71
A rare complication of
the diabetic hyperosmolar nonketotic state is
acute nontraumatic rhabdomyolysis that may
lead to renal failure.
370
Calcium
Both high and low serum calcium values can be
associated with neurologic abnormalities.
371
HYPERCALCEMIA
An elevated serum calcium level may be due
to the effects of primary hyperparathyroidism,
256
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
immobilization, or cancer. Hypercalcemia is a
common and important complication of can-
cer, resulting from either metastatic lesions that
demineralize the bones or as a remote effect of
parathyroid hormone-secreting tumors. Hy-
perparathyroidism due to a benign parathyroid
adenoma is also a common cause.
372
The sys-
temic clinical symptoms of hypercalcemia in-
clude anorexia, nausea and frequently vomit-
ing, intense thirst, polyuria, and polydipsia.
Muscle weakness can be prominent and neu-
rogenic atrophy has been reported. Some pa-
tients with hypercalcemia have as their first
symptom a mild diffuse encephalopathy with
headache. Delusions and changes in affect can
be prominent, so that many such patients have
been initially treated for a psychiatric disorder
until the blood calcium level was measured.
With severe hypercalcemia, stupor and finally
coma occur. Generalized or focal seizures are
rare. The posterior leukoencephalopathy syn-
drome (see page 215) has been reported in
association with severe hypercalcemia.
Hypercalcemia should be suspected in a
delirious patient who has a history of renal
calculi, recent immobilization, cancer, or evi-
dence of any other systemic disease known to
cause the condition.
373
A serum calcium de-
termination is therefore a routine part of the
evaluation in patients with unexplained delir-
ium or confusional states.
HYPOCALCEMIA
Hypocalcemia is usually caused by hypopara-
thyroidism (often occurring late and unsuspec-
ted after thyroidectomy), pancreatitis, or, rarely,
an idiopathic disorder of calcium metabolism.
The cardinal peripheral manifestations of hypo-
calcemia are neuromuscular irritability and tet-
any, but these may be absent when hypocalce-
mia develops insidiously. Accordingly, patients
with hypoparathyroid hypocalcemia can some-
times present with a mild diffuse encephalop-
athy as their only symptom. Seizures, either
focal or generalized, are common, especially in
children. With more severe cases, excitement,
delirium, hallucinations, and stupor have been
reported. Except postictally, however, coma is
rare. Papilledema has been reported, associated
with an increased ICP. This hypocalcemic pse-
udotumor cerebri apparently is a direct effect
of the metabolic abnormality, but the precise
mechanism remains unexplained.
371
Hypocalcemia is commonly misdiagnosed as
mental retardation, dementia, or epilepsy, and
occasionally a brain tumor is suspected. Hy-
pocalcemia should be suspected if the patient
has cataracts, and the correct diagnosis some-
times can be inferred from observing calcifica-
tion in the basal ganglia on CT scan. Normally,
serum calcium levels run from 8.5 to 10.5 mg/
dL. About half of this is bound to albumin and
half represents free ions. For each 1.0 g/dL
drop in serum albumin below about 5, the
serum calcium falls by about 0.8 mg/dL. Thus,
with an albumin of 2.0 g/dL, a normal serum
calcium may be as low as 7.0 mg/dL. To avoid
making this extrapolation, if there is any ques-
tion about the calcium level, the free serum
calcium should be measured. A free calcium
level below 4.0 mg/dL is diagnostic of hypo-
calcemia.
Chronic hypocalcemia may cause chorea
and parkinsonism, along with calcifications in
the basal ganglia. Tetany caused by spontane-
ous, irregular repetitive nerve action potentials
is a common complication of hypocalcemia, as
Patient 5–22 demonstrates.
Patient 5–22
An 18-year-old woman had been treated for an
osteogenic sarcoma. Surgery was followed by
cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Five years later
following reconstructive surgery on her leg, she
complained of numbness and tingling of both
hands and arms spreading into the face and fol-
lowed by spasms of her arms, which lasted several
hours. A diagnosis of panic attack was made and
after sedation the symptoms cleared. Other attacks
followed but were milder until 2001; while the
patient was in bed with a viral illness, the symp-
toms were so severe that she was taken to an
emergency department where sedation was again
applied. She was referred for evaluation of anxiety
and panic attacks. The general neurologic exam-
ination was entirely normal. However, a Trous-
seau’s sign elicited by raising the pressure in a
blood pressure cuff above systolic pressure for 3
minutes demonstrated carpal spasms bilaterally.
Voluntary hyperventilation for 2 minutes repro-
duced the carpal spasms and paresthesias in both
hands. Chvostek’s sign elicited by tapping over
the facial nerve in front of the ear also elicited
contraction of the facial muscles, particularly the
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
257
orbicularis oculi. Serum calcium was 7.5 mEq/L
(normal ¼ 8.5 to 10.5); serum albumin was normal,
but ionized calcium was 3.8 mEq/L (normal ¼ 4.8
to 5.3). Serum magnesium and potassium were
also low. The patient responded to electrolyte re-
placement.
Comment: Cisplatin and ifosfamide are drugs
that can cause calcium- and magnesium-losing
nephropathy. Both low magnesium (see below)
and low ionized calcium that result from a mag-
nesium loss can cause hyperventilation that fur-
ther lowers ionized calcium, presumably by in-
creasing the binding of calcium to albumin, thus
causing tetany. The patient’s two severe attacks
probably resulted from anxiety-induced hyper-
ventilation.
Other Electrolytes
Hypo- and hypermagnesemia are rare causes
of neurologic symptomatology.
371
Hypomag-
nesemia, like hypercalcemia, causes irritabil-
ity and tetany as described in the case above,
sometimes with seizures and confusion. Focal
neurologic signs sometimes occur. Because hy-
pomagnesemia and hypocalcemia often occur
together, it is sometimes difficult to deter-
mine which is the culprit. Both should be
corrected.
Hypermagnesemia is even rarer than hypo-
magnesemia. It is mainly seen in the obstetric
suite when eclampsia is treated with intrave-
nous infusion of magnesium sulfate. Magne-
sium blocks calcium channels, so there is fail-
ure of neurotransmission. Muscles are flaccid
and deep tendon reflexes disappear early. The
muscle weakness may involve respiratory mus-
cles, causing hypoxia. If high levels persist,
they may equilibrate across the blood-brain
barrier, resulting in lethargy and confusion and
rarely coma.
Hypophosphatemia can occur during nutri-
tional repletion, with gastrointestinal malab-
sorption, use of phosphate binders, starvation,
diabetes mellitus, and renal tubular dysfunction.
Delirium, stupor, and coma have been reported,
as have generalized convulsions.
374
Phosphate
repletion reverses the symptoms. Hyperphos-
phatemia can occur with rhabdomyolysis or
during the tumor lysis syndrome, but does not
appear to cause neurologic symptoms.
278
Disorders of Systemic
Acid-Base Balance
Systemic acidosis and alkalosis accompany sev-
eral diseases that cause metabolic coma, and
the attendant respiratory and acid-base chan-
ges can give important clues about the cause
of coma (see page 188 and Table 5–3). How-
ever, of the four disorders of systemic acid-
base balance (respiratory and metabolic aci-
dosis and respiratory and metabolic alkalosis),
only respiratory acidosis acts as a direct cause
of stupor and coma with any regularity.
255
Even then, the associated hypoxia may be as
important as is the acidosis in producing the
neurologic abnormality. Metabolic acidosis,
the most immediately medically dangerous of
the acid-base disorders, by itself only rarely
produces coma. Usually, metabolic acidosis is
associated with delirium or, at most, confused
obtundation. Respiratory alkalosis under most
circumstances causes no more than light-
headedness and confusion, which is believed
to be due to decreased CBF in the face of low
PCO
2
. However, when respiratory alkalosis
26
is caused by overcorrection of chronic pulmo-
nary failure, the resulting large drop in PCO
2
,
while serum bicarbonate corrects more slowly,
can cause stupor or coma associated with
multifocal myoclonus due to cerebral ischemia
resulting from the large decrease of CBF.
375
Severe metabolic alkalosis has occasionally been
reported to cause encephalopathy and rarely
seizures. Tetany may occur, probably related
to decreased ionizable calcium.
32
Compensa-
tion for metabolic alkalosis with hypoventila-
tion and a rising PCO
2
may play a role in de-
creasing consciousness, and in adult patients
with cystic fibrosis may contribute to respira-
tory failure.
35
If patients with acid-base disor-
ders other than respiratory acidosis or severe
and protracted metabolic acidosis are in stupor
or coma, it is unlikely that the acid-base dis-
turbance by itself is responsible. Instead, it is
more likely is that the metabolic defect re-
sponsible for the acid-base disturbance (e.g.,
uremia, hepatic encephalopathy, or circulatory
depression leading to lactic acidosis) also is
directly interfering with brain function.
A useful clinical clue to the presence and
possible cause of metabolic acidosis or certain
other electrolyte disorders comes from esti-
mating the anion gap from the measured blood
258
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
electrolytes. The calculation is based on the
known electroneutrality of the serum, which
requires the presence of an equal number of
anions (negative charges) and cations (positive
charges). For practical purposes, sodium and
potassium (or sodium alone) represent 95%
of the cations, whereas the most abundant and
conveniently measured anions, chloride and
bicarbonate, add up to only 85% of the normal
total. The result is an anion gap in unmeasured
electrolytes that amounts normally to about
12 ± 4 mEq/L:
(Na þ K) À (Cl
À
þ HCO
3
)
¼ 8 to 16 mEq=L
An increase in the anion gap ordinarily im-
plies the presence of an undetected electrolyte
(either an endogenous or exogenous toxin)
causing a metabolic acidosis, and should prompt
an immediate search by deduction and specific
test for the ‘‘missing anion.’’
DISORDERS OF
THERMOREGULATION
Both hyperthermia and hypothermia can inter-
fere with cerebral metabolism, causing diffuse
neurologic signs including delirium, stupor, or
coma. Brain temperature is affected both by
body temperature and the intrinsic metabolic
activity of the brain. Under normal circumstan-
ces, the brain is about 0.48C warmer than ar-
terial blood with considerable variability from
area to area.
376
Brain temperature can fluctuate
38C to 48C during normal behavioral activity
and more so when exposed to certain drugs (see
below). Current evidence suggests that brain
cells can tolerate temperatures of no more than
418C.
376
After that, cellular death of neurons
such as Purkinje cells of the cerebellum begins;
as a result, patients recovering from heat stroke
may suffer severe and permanent ataxia.
377
When brain temperature rises, either because
of its own activity or an increase in body tem-
perature, there is an increase in blood flow,
which is usually greater than that required by
the increase in metabolism. Vasodilation from
the increased blood flow reduces brain temper-
ature toward that of blood but increases blood
volume and, therefore, ICP. This can harm the
brain, particularly when ICP is already elevated
from the brain injury or tumor. Thus, hyper-
thermia is more damaging to injured brain, for
example, after traumatic brain injury, than it is
to normal brain, for example, after heat stroke.
Hyperthermia also can be devastating in pa-
tients who have suffered a cerebral infarct, be-
cause the CBF cannot increase to meet meta-
bolic demands in the ischemic area, but the
increase in flow to other brain areas may be at
the expense of perfusion of the ischemic pen-
umbra.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia results from a variety of illnesses
including disorders of the hypothalamus,
myxedema, hypopituitarism, and bodily expo-
sure.
378,379
A low body temperature may ac-
company metabolic coma, particularly hypo-
glycemia and drug-induced coma, especially
that resulting from barbiturate overdose, phe-
nothiazine overdose, or alcoholism. With de-
creasing body temperature, cerebral metabolic
needs decrease and, thus, CBF and oxygen
consumption fall. In the absence of any un-
derlying disease that may be causing both
coma and hypothermia, there is a rough cor-
relation among the body temperature, cerebral
oxygen uptake, and state of consciousness. Un-
less there is some other metabolic reason for
stupor or coma, patients with body tempera-
tures above 32.28C are usually conscious. Ini-
tially, patients are tachypneic, tachycardic, and
shivering with intense peripheral vasoconstric-
tion and sometimes elevated blood pressure.
As time passes, patients may become apathe-
tic, uncoordinated, and hypobulic.
378
At tem-
peratures between 288C and 32.28C, patients
become stuporous or comatose with slowed
respiration and bradycardia. Hypotension and
atrial dysrhythmias may occur. Below 288C res-
pirations may cease, pupils become nonreac-
tive, and the EEG may become flat. Patients
may develop pulmonary edema or ventricular
dysrhythmias.
Clinically, accidental hypothermia (i.e., hy-
pothermia in the absence of any predisposing
cause) is a disease mainly of elderly people
exposed to a moderately cold environment (i.e.,
mainly during the winter months). It is also
seen with ethanol intoxication, and may be
an important component of suppression of
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
259
cerebral function in many drownings. Hypo-
thermic patients are often found unconscious
in a cold environment, although fully one-third
are found in their beds rather than out in the
street. The patients who are unconscious are
strikingly pale, have a pliable consistency of sub-
cutaneous tissue, and may have the appear-
ance of myxedema even though that disease
is not present. Shivering is absent if the tem-
perature falls below 308C, but there may be
occasional fascicular twitching over the shoul-
ders and trunk, and there is usually a diffuse
increase in muscle tone leading almost to the
appearance of rigor mortis. The body feels cold
to the touch even in protected areas such as
the perineum. Respirations are slow and shal-
low and there can be CO
2
retention. The blood
pressure may be immeasurable and the pulse
very slow or absent. Some patients are thought
to be dead when first encountered. At times
the deep tendon reflexes are absent, but usu-
ally they are present and may be hyperactive;
they may, however, have a delayed relaxation
phase resembling that of myxedema. The pu-
pils may be constricted or dilated and report-
edly may not respond to light. The EEG is
diffusely slow without reduction in amplitude.
One makes the diagnosis by recording the body
temperature and ruling out precipitating cau-
ses other than exposure. Standard clinical ther-
mometers do not register below 34.48C (948F);
thus, simple perusal of the chart of tempera-
tures taken by the nursing staff may not reveal
the true severity of the hypothermia. Further-
more, it is not clear how accurate tympanic
thermometers are in patients with severe hy-
pothermia. The perceptive physician must pro-
cure a thermometer that records sufficiently
low readings to verify his or her clinical im-
pression. Hypothermia carries a high mortality
rate (40% to 60%). However, those who do re-
cover rarely suffer residual neurologic changes.
In fact, hypothermia is neuroprotective and is
routinely used by cardiothoracic surgeons to
extend the amount of time they can suspend
cerebral circulation during surgery on the heart
or the aortic arch. Therapeutic hypothermia is
also being increasingly used for the treatment
of a variety of neurologic disorders, particu-
larly head injuries and cardiac arrest.
380
Simi-
larly, hypothermic drowning victims, particu-
larly children, may be successfully resuscitated
after much longer periods of respiratory arrest
than normothermic individuals. Brain injuries
in patients who die include perivascular hem-
orrhages in the region of the third ventricle
with chromatolysis of ganglion cells. Multifocal
infarcts have been described in several viscera,
including the brain, and probably reflect the
cardiovascular collapse that complicates severe
hypothermia. Hypothermia may be complica-
ted by rhabdomyolysis leading to renal failure.
A rare cause of hypothermia is paroxysmal
hypothermia, a condition in which patients with
developmental defects in the anterior hypo-
thalamus have intermittent episodes of hypo-
thermia, down to a body temperature of 308C
or even lower, lasting several days at a time,
accompanied by ataxia, stupor, and sometimes
coma. Shapiro and colleagues pointed out an
association with agenesis of the corpus callo-
sum, which is sometimes accompanied by ep-
isodic hyponatremia (see above).
381
Although
spontaneous and complete recovery is the rule
with supportive care, we have treated these
patients with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs and this, anecdotally, has increased body
temperature.
Hyperthermia
Fever, the most common cause of hyperther-
mia in humans, is a regulated increase in body
temperature in response to an inflammatory
stimulus. Fever is caused by the action of pros-
taglandin E2, which is made in response to in-
flammatory stimuli, on neurons in the preoptic
area. The preoptic neurons then activate ther-
mogenic pathways in the brain that increase
body temperature. It is rare for fever to pro-
duce a body temperature above 408C to 418C,
which has only limited effects on cognitive
function. Hence, changes in consciousness in
patients with fever are mainly due to neuronal
effects of the underlying inflammatory condi-
tion itself, not the change in body temperature
(see section on infectious and inflammatory
disorders of the CNS, page 262).
On the other hand, hyperthermia of 428C
or higher, which is sufficient to produce stupor
or coma, can occur with heatstroke.
382
Heat
stroke, caused by failure of the brain’s physi-
ologic mechanisms for heat dissipation, occurs
most commonly in young people who exercise
unduly in heat to which they are not accli-
matized, and in older people (who presum-
ably possess less plastic adaptive mechanisms),
260
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
particularly during the summer’s first hot
spell.
382
It is a particular threat in patients
taking anticholinergic drugs, which interfere
with heat dissipation by inhibiting sweating,
and is also seen in rare patients with hypo-
thalamic lesions who lack appropriate thirst
and vasopressin responses to conserve fluid.
Clinically, heat stroke typically begins with
headache and nausea, although some patients
may first come to attention due to a period of
agitated and violent delirium, sometimes punc-
tuated by generalized convulsions, or they may Dostları ilə paylaş: |