ataxia and focal or generalized seizures, are com-
mon, as is dementia. The characteristic neuro-
logic abnormality in these patients is oculo-
masticatory myorhythmia, a slow convergence
nystagmus accompanied by synchronous con-
traction of the jaw. The myorhythmias are pres-
ent in only about 20% of patients and are always
associated with a supranuclear vertical gaze
palsy. The spinal fluid may demonstrate a pleo-
cytosis but may be entirely benign. MRI is
nonspecific showing hyperintense signal in the
hypothalamus and brainstem sometimes with
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
265
abnormal enhancement, but without mass ef-
fect. Lesions are frequently multiple.
The diagnosis, if suspected, can often be
made by intestinal biopsy or sometimes by PCR
of the spinal fluid, but may require meningeal
biopsy.
404
The disease is curable with antibiot-
ics but lethal if not treated.
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: VIRAL
Overview of Viral Encephalitis
Viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, protozoa, and
nematodes can all invade brain parenchyma.
However, only viruses, bacteria, and the rick-
ettsial infection Rocky Mountain spotted
fever
405
invade the brain acutely and diffusely
enough to cause altered states of consciousness
and to demand immediate attention in the
diagnosis of stupor or coma. Bacterial enceph-
alitis has been considered above as a part of
meningitis. Viral encephalitis is discussed in
this section.
Viral encephalitis can be divided into four
pathologic syndromes. These syndromes are
sometimes clinically distinct as well, but the
clinical signs of the first three are often so
similar as to preclude specific diagnosis with-
out biopsy, CSF PCR,
406
or, sometimes, au-
topsy. (1) Acute viral encephalitis results from
invasion of the brain by a virus that produces
primarily or exclusively a CNS infection.
407
(2)
Parainfectious encephalomyelitis also occurs
during or after viral infections, particularly the
childhood infections of measles, mumps, and
varicella.
407
(3) Acute toxic encephalopathy
usually occurs during the course of a systemic
infection with a common virus. (4) Progressive
viral infections are encephalitides caused by
conventional viral agents but occurring in sus-
ceptible patients, usually those who are im-
munosuppressed, or who develop the infection
in utero or during early childhood. Such in-
fections lead to slow or progressive destruction
of the nervous system. During intrauterine
development these disorders include cyto-
megalovirus, rubella, and herpes infections,
although nonviral causes such as toxoplasma
or syphilis can have a similar result. During
childhood, progressive brain damage may oc-
cur with subacute sclerosing panencephalitis,
subacute measles encephalitis, or progressive
rubella panencephalitis, but all of these are
now rarely seen in vaccinated populations.
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, a
slow infection with JC virus, may occur at any
time of life in an immune-compromised host.
These latter disorders are subacute or gradual
in onset, producing stupor or coma in their
terminal stages. Hence, they do not cause
problems in the differential diagnosis of stupor
or coma, and are not dealt with here in detail.
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
is considered along with the primary neuro-
nal and glial disorders of brain (Table 5–1,
heading G). Prion infections,
408,409
includ-
ing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-
Strau¨ssler disease, and fatal familial insom-
nia,
410
were at one time also thought to be
‘‘slow viral’’ illnesses, but they are now known
to be due to a misfolded protein. With the
occasional exception of Creutzfeldt-Jakob dis-
ease, these disorders likewise are gradual in
onset; they do not represent problems in dif-
ferential diagnosis and are not discussed here.
In each of the pathologically defined viral
encephalitides, the viruses produce neurologic
signs in one of three ways: (1) they invade,
reproduce in, and destroy neurons and glial
cells (acute viral encephalitis). Cell dysfunc-
tion or death may occur even in the absence
of any inflammatory or immune response. (2)
They evoke an immune response that can cause
hemorrhage, inflammation, and necrosis, or de-
myelination (parainfectious encephalomyeli-
tis). (3) They provoke cerebral edema and
sometimes vascular damage (toxic encepha-
lopathy), both of which increase the ICP and,
like a supratentorial mass lesion, lead to trans-
tentorial herniation
The clinical findings in each of the viral
encephalitides are sometimes sufficiently dif-
ferent to allow clinical diagnosis even when the
illness has progressed to the stage of stupor or
coma. Furthermore, within each of these ca-
tegories, specific viral illnesses may have indi-
vidual clinical features that strongly suggest
the diagnosis. Unfortunately, all too often the
first three categories, which cause acute brain
dysfunction, cannot be distinguished on a clin-
ical basis, and the generic term acute en-
cephalitis must be used unless PCR, biopsy, or
266
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
autopsy material establishes the exact patho-
logic change. To compound the complexity,
certain viruses can cause different pathologic
changes in the brain depending on the setting.
For example, acute toxic encephalopathy, para-
infectious encephalomyelitis, subacute scle-
rosing panencephalitis, and subacute measles
encephalitis were all reported to be caused by
the measles virus (although now this is rarely
seen). Despite these difficulties in diagnosis, an
attempt should be made to separate the acute
encephalitides into pathologic categories and
to establish the causal agent, since the treat-
ment and prognosis are different in the dif-
ferent categories. Brain biopsy is only rarely
necessary, as discussed in detail on page 273.
Acute Viral Encephalitis
Although a number of viruses cause human en-
cephalitis, only two major types are both com-
mon and produce coma in the United States:
arboviruses (Eastern equine, Western equine,
and St. Louis encephalitis) and herpes viruses.
Uncommon causes of stupor and coma include
West Nile virus (especially between August
and October),
411,412
severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS), and other emerging neu-
rotropic viruses that may become more com-
mon causes of encephalitis-induced coma in
the future.
413
(The varicella-zoster virus, a rare
cause of stupor in the normal adult population,
may produce cerebral vasculitis [page 275]).
HERPES SIMPLEX ENCEPHALITIS
(FIGURE 5–11)
This disease is pathologically characterized by
extensive neuronal damage in the cerebral
hemispheres with a remarkable predilection by
the virus for the gray matter of the medial tem-
poral lobe as well as other limbic structures,
especially the insula, cingulate gyrus, and in-
ferior frontal lobe. Neuronal destruction is ac-
companied by perivascular invasion with in-
flammatory cells and proliferation of microglia
with frequent formation of glial nodules. The
vascular endothelium often swells and prolif-
erates. Areas of focal cortical necrosis are
Figure 5–11. Magnetic resonance images of herpes simplex encephalitis. (A) and (B) are, respectively, the FLAIR and
contrast-enhanced images of a patient with acute herpes simplex encephalitis. She also suffered from non-small cell lung
cancer, and a left occipital metastasis had been previously resected (scar obvious on FLAIR image).
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
267
common. Local hemorrhage into brain tissue
may occur. Cowdry type A inclusion bodies in
neurons and glial cells are a distinctive feature.
Clinically, herpes simplex encephalitis be-
gins with the acute onset of a confusional state,
aphasia, or behavioral changes, often accom-
panied by headache, fever, and seizures. The
illness progresses acutely or subacutely to pro-
duce stupor or coma. In one series of 45 pa-
tients, 28 had Glasgow Coma Score of less than
10 and 13 were deeply comatose.
414
This early
stage may be fulminating, and in some instances
may transition from full health to stupor in only
a few hours. Often, behavioral disturbances
or agitated delirium, particularly with olfactory
or gustatory hallucinations, precedes coma by
hours or days, a pattern so characteristic as to
suggest the diagnosis. Focal motor signs fre-
quently accompany the onset of coma, and
tremors of the extremities, face, and even trunk
commonly complement the agitated delirium
of herpes encephalitis. Occasionally the neu-
rologic signs of herpes simplex encephalitis,
either type 1
415
or type 2,
416
, are limited to the
brainstem, with cranial nerve palsies pre-
dominating.
The CSF pressure is usually increased (180
to 400 mm CSF) and the white cell count is usu-
ally elevated (10 to 1000/mm
3
, mostly mono-
nuclear). Both may be normal, particularly
early in the course of the illness. Up to 500 red
cells/mm
3
are common and the CSF protein
content usually is elevated (values up 870 mg/
dL having been reported). The CSF sugar is
usually normal but occasionally depressed.
Identification of viral DNA by PCR establishes
the diagnosis and obviates the need for a bi-
opsy.
417,418
The EEG is always abnormal.
Distinctive, periodic, high-voltage, 1-Hz sharp
waves from one or both temporal lobes are
highly characteristic of herpes simplex enceph-
alitis and suggest a poor prognosis. Imaging
with MRI typically identifies the lesions much
earlier than CT. Abnormalities in the tempo-
ral lobes, and sometimes the frontal lobe as
well, suggest the diagnosis. Functional imag-
ing identifies hyperperfusion in the temporal
lobe.
417
Extratemporal involvement on MRI is
found in a significant minority of patients.
419
Early diagnosis of herpes simplex encephali-
tis is vital as treatment with acyclovir or an
equivalent antiviral drug yields the best results
when administered before patients become
comatose.
Sometimes, as in the following cases, severe
hemispheral brain swelling produces trans-
tentorial herniation and may lead to death.
Patient 5–24
A 71-year-old woman was brought into the emer-
gency department for a headache and confusion.
Her temperature was 988F and she complained of a
diffuse headache, but could not answer questions
coherently. Neurologic examination showed a mild
left hemiparesis and some left-sided inattention. A
right hemisphere ischemic event was suspected, but
the CT did not disclose any abnormality. She was
admitted to the stroke service. The following day her
temperature spiked to 1028F, and a lumbar puncture
was done showing seven white blood cells, 19 red
blood cells, a protein of 48, and a glucose of 103
with a normal opening pressure. An MRI showed T2
signal involving the medial and lateral temporal
lobe, as well as the insular and cingulate cortex on
the right, with less intense but similar involvement of
the right cingulate cortex. By this time she had lapsed
into a stuporous state, with small but reactive pupils,
full roving eye movements, and symmetric increase
in motor tone. She was started on acyclovir. Despite
treatment she developed edema of the right temporal
lobe with uncal herniation.
Comment: Because the initial presentation sug-
gested a right hemisphere ischemic event, the pa-
tient was treated according to standard stroke pro-
tocols, which do not require lumbar puncture. By
the time the MRI scan was done, revealing the
typical pattern of herpes simplex encephalitis, the
patient had progressed to a stuporous state and
acyclovir was not able to prevent the swelling and
herniation of her right temporal lobe.
The following case was seen in the era prior
to CT and antiviral therapy. It is presented
because it illustrates the natural history of
herpes encephalitis and included a pathologic
examination.
HISTORICAL VIGNETTE
Patient 5–25
A 32-year-old children’s nurse was admitted to the
hospital in coma. She had felt vaguely unwell 5
268
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
days before admission and then developed oc-
cipital headache and vomiting. Two days before
admission, a physician carefully examined her but
found only a temperature of 398C and a normal
blood count. She remained alone for the next 48
hours and was found unconscious in her room and
brought to the emergency department.
Examination showed an unresponsive woman
with her head and eyes deviated to the right. She
had small ecchymoses over the left eye, left hip,
and knee. Her neck was moderately stiff. The right
pupil was slightly larger than the left, both reacted
to light, and the oculocephalic reflex was intact.
The corneal reflex was bilaterally sluggish and the
gag reflex was intact. Her extremities were flaccid,
the stretch reflexes were 3þ, and the plantar re-
sponses were flexor. In the emergency department
she had a generalized convulsion associated with
deviation of the head and the eyes to the left. The
opening pressure on lumbar puncture was 130 mm
of CSF. There were 550 mononuclear cells and
643 red blood cells/mm
3
. The CSF glucose was 65
and the protein was 54 mg/dL. Skull x-ray findings
were normal. A right carotid arteriogram showed
marked elevation of the sylvian vessels with only
minimal deviation of the midline structures. Burr
holes were placed; no subdural blood was found.
A ventriculogram showed the third ventricle
curved to the right. The EEG contained 1- to 2-Hz
high-amplitude slow waves appearing regularly
every 3 to 5 seconds from a background of almost
complete electrical silence. Low-amplitude 10- to
12-Hz sharp-wave bursts of gradually increasing
voltage began over either frontal area and oc-
curred every 1 to 2 minutes; they lasted 20 to 40
seconds and were associated with seizure activity.
Her seizures were partially controlled with an-
ticonvulsants and she received 20 million units of
penicillin and chloramphenicol for possible bac-
terial meningitis. Her condition gradually deteri-
orated, and on the eighth hospital day she devel-
oped midposition fixed pupils with absence of
oculovestibular responses, and diabetes insipidus
with a serum osmolality of 313 mOsm/L and urine
specific gravity of 1.005. Eight days after admis-
sion, lumbar puncture yielded a serosanguineous
fluid with 26,000 red blood cells and 2,200 mo-
nonuclear cells. The protein was 210 mg/dL. CSF
antibody titers for herpes simplex virus were 1:4 at
admission but 1:32 by day 8. She died 10 days
after admission, having been maintained with ar-
tificial ventilation and pressor agents for 48 hours.
At autopsy, herpes simplex virus was cultured
from the cerebral cortex. The leptomeninges were
congested, and the brain was swollen and soft with
bilateral deep tentorial grooving along the hippo-
campal gyrus. The diencephalon was displaced an
estimated 8 to 10 mm caudally through the ten-
torial notch. On cut section, the medial and ante-
rior temporal lobes as well as the insula were bi-
laterally necrotic, hemorrhagic, and soft. Linear
and oval hemorrhages were found in the thalamus
bilaterally and extended down the central portion
of the brainstem as far as the pons. Hemorrhages
were also found in the cerebellum, and there was a
small, intact arteriovenous malformation in the
right sylvian fissure. There were meningeal infiltra-
tions predominantly of lymphocytes, some plasma
cells, and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. The pe-
rivascular spaces were also infiltrated in places
extending to the subcortical white matter. In some
areas the entire cortex was necrotic with shrunken
and eosinophilic nerve cells. Numerous areas of
extravasated red blood cells were present in the
cortex, basal ganglia, and upper brainstem. Marked
microglial proliferation and astrocytic hyperplasia
were present. Cowdry type A intranuclear inclu-
sion bodies were present primarily in the oligoden-
droglia, but were also seen in astroglia, small neu-
rons, and occasional capillary endothelial cells.
Comment: This patient’s history, findings, and
course in the days before imaging, PCR, or anti-
viral agents were available were characteristic of
herpes simplex encephalitis. The pathologic ex-
amination of the brain complements the imaging
available in modern cases, and was able to dem-
onstrate the presence of viral inclusions.
Many noninfectious illnesses may mimic
infections. Some present as acute meningeal
reactions, others as more chronic reactions.
Table 5–20 lists some of these.
Acute Toxic Encephalopathy
During Viral Encephalitis
Acute toxic encephalopathy is the term applied
to a nervous system disorder, seen predomi-
nantly in children under the age of 5, which
usually occurs during or after a systemic viral
infection and is characterized clinically by the
acute onset of increased ICP, with or without
focal neurologic signs, and without CSF pleo-
cytosis. The disorder is distinguished patho-
logically from acute viral encephalitis by the
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
269
absence of inflammatory change or other path-
ologic abnormalities of acute viral encephalitis,
save for cerebral edema and its consequences.
Edema is induced by inflammatory cytokines,
inducible nitric oxide synthase, adhesion mol-
ecules, and miniplasmin.
421
The cause of acute
toxic encephalopathy is unknown and may re-
present several different illnesses. The best
characterized of these was Reye’s syndrome
(see below), which rarely is seen anymore, after
the use of aspirin was abandoned in children
with febrile illnesses. It often accompanies vi-
ral infection, particularly influenza,
422
but also
the common exanthems such as measles and
mumps; it also appears without evidence of
preceding systemic viral infection. In some in-
stances, viruses have been identified in the
brain at autopsy. There may be accompanying
evidence of an acute systemic illness, such as
liver and kidney damage in Reye’s syndrome,
or the patient may be free of symptoms other
than those of CNS dysfunction. Death is
caused by cerebral edema with transtentorial
herniation. At autopsy neither inflammation
nor demyelination are encountered in the
brain, only evidence of severe and widespread
cerebral edema.
Clinically, the disease is characterized by an
acute or subacute febrile onset associated with
headache, sometimes nausea and vomiting,
and often delirium or drowsiness followed by
stupor or coma. Focal neurologic signs usually
are absent but may be prominent and include
hemiparesis or hemiplegia, aphasia, or visual
field defects. In its most fulminant form, the
untreated illness progresses rapidly, with signs
of transtentorial herniation leading to coma
with impaired ocular movements, abnormal
pupillary reflexes, abnormal posturing, and,
eventually, respiratory failure and death. Status
epilepticus marks the early course of a small
proportion of the patients. Patient 5–26 illus-
trates such a case.
Patient 5–26
A 46-year-old man was in hospital 10 days fol-
lowing a negative inguinal lymph node dissection
for the treatment of urethral cancer. He was well
and ready for discharge when he complained of a
sudden left temporal headache and was noted by
his roommate to be confused. Neurologic exami-
nation revealed a modest temperature elevation to
38.18C in an awake but confused individual who
was disoriented to time and had difficulty carrying
out three-step commands. The neurologic exami-
nation was entirely intact, and laboratory evalua-
tion for infection or metabolic abnormalities was
entirely normal. The EEG was bilaterally slow,
Table 5–20 Disorders That Imitate Central Nervous System Infections and the
Types of Infection That They Most Commonly Mimic
Acute Meningitis
Chronic Meningitis
Encephalitis/
Meningoencephalitis
Behc¸et’s disease
Chemical meningitis
Acute disseminated
encephalomyelitis
Chemical meningitis
Granulomatous angiitis
Acute hemorrhagic
leukoencephalitis
Cyst rupture
Lymphomatoid
granulomatosi
Acute toxic encephalopathy
Drug-induced meningitis
Meningeal malignancy
Behc¸et’s disease
Meningism
Systemic lupus
erythematosus
Serum sickness
Parameningeal infection
Sarcoidosis
Systemic lupus
erythematosus
Sarcoidosis
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