control behavior until the delirium clears. Drugs
such as lithium and valproic acid have been used
as mood stabilizers, but the underlying illness
appears to be self-limited, rarely lasting more
than a few weeks even without specific treat-
ment; controlled trials have not been done.
Subacute Diencephalic
Angioencephalopathy
DeGirolami and colleagues described a patient
with the subacute onset of a confusional state
followed by progressive dementia, obtunda-
tion, and diffuse myoclonus.
443
The CSF
showed a progressive rise in the protein con-
centration. On postmortem examination, there
were extensive destructive lesions of the thal-
ami bilaterally associated with a focal vasculitis
of small arteries and veins (20 to 80 microns in
diameter). The vascular lesions were charac-
terized by thickening of all layers of the vessel
wall, with occasional scattered polymorpho-
nuclear leukocytes in the wall and some col-
lections of mononuclear inflammatory cells in
the adventitia. Giant cells were absent. The
authors were unable to find similar patients
reported in the literature. The disease is so
rare, and its clinical signs so nonspecific, as to
make it unlikely to be diagnosed in the ante-
mortem state. Since the original report, several
other cases have been described.
444
In most
instances, imaging revealed patchy contrast en-
hancement suggesting a brain tumor. In one
instance, the diagnosis was made by biopsy
prior to the patient’s death and then confirmed
by autopsy.
445
Varicella-Zoster Vasculitis
Herpes zoster rarely causes stupor or coma. It
usually presents as a cutaneous dermatomal
infection, initially with itching and pain, fol-
lowed by a rash and then vesicular lesions. As
many as 40% of patients with uncomplicated
herpes zoster have meningitis, usually asymp-
tomatic and characterized only by mild CSF
pleocytosis, but sometimes accompanied by
fever, headache, and stiff neck.
Less commonly, herpes zoster infection may
cause more profound CNS problems by caus-
ing a vasculitis.
446
Pathologically, this is a viral
infection of the affected cerebral blood vessels,
and in immunocompetent patients, this may
lead to stroke. This syndrome is especially
common with ophthalmic division trigeminal
zoster, and typically involves the ipsilateral ca-
rotid artery. In an immunocompromised pa-
tient, the infectious vasculitis may be more
widespread, leading to a diffuse encephalopa-
thy. The diagnosis may be difficult because
neurologic features are protean
446
and the dis-
ease sometimes occurs months after the cuta-
neous lesions have cleared. Occasionally there is
no history of a zoster rash. The MRI or cerebral
angiography suggests a vasculitis. Examination
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
275
of the spinal fluid looking for a varicella-zoster
DNA by PCR or by examination of zoster im-
munoglobulin establishes the diagnosis. This is
important because even months after the rash,
antiviral therapy may be effective.
446
Behc¸et’s Syndrome
Behc¸et’s syndrome is an inflammatory disease
of unknown cause, the vasculopathy being
largely venous. The patient can present with
subacutely developing neurologic symptoms
and often on examination has evidence of other
systemic disease including recurrent oral ul-
cerations, recurrent genital ulcerations, ante-
rior or posterior uveitis, and skin lesions in-
cluding erythema nodosum.
447
The disorder
occurs with increased frequency along the ‘‘silk
road’’ extending from Japan to the Mediterra-
nean where it is coupled with an HLA-B51
haplotype. It is especially prevalent in Turkey.
Neurologic symptoms have been divided into
three groups: (1) primary neurologic symptoms
include inflammatory disease usually of the
brainstem, subacute in onset and tending to
remit. Ataxia, diplopia, behavioral changes, and
alterations of consciousness are relatively
common. The CSF may have a pleocytosis. In
fact, meningoencephalitis may be the only
finding in the disorder. Characteristic imag-
ing signs include inflammatory lesions of the
brainstem sometimes extending into the dien-
cephalon, as well as periventricular subcorti-
cal white matter lesions in the hemispheres.
448
Single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) imaging discloses areas of hypopro-
fusion localized in the deep basal ganglia or in
the frontal temporal cortex.
447
(2) The second
neurologic syndrome, characterized by cere-
bral dural venous sinus thrombosis, may lead
to venous infarction. When the dural venous
system is involved and there is no venous in-
farct, headache is the major symptom and there
may be no other neurologic signs. (3) Neuro-
logic symptoms may occur as a result of intra-
cranial hypertension from a superior vena cava
syndrome or from cerebral emboli resulting
from cardiac complications. A combination of
parenchymal lesions and dural venous infarc-
tion should lead to a careful search for a history
of genital or oral ulceration.
449
The long-term
outcome is generally fairly good with the dis-
ease remitting, and in some cases, burning out.
Corticosteroids often successfully treat acute
episodes.
447
Cerebral Autosomal Dominant
Arteriopathy With Subcortical
Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy
Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy
with subcortical infarcts and leukoencepha-
lopathy (CADASIL) is an inherited vasculo-
pathy resulting from mutations of the notch-3
gene. It is characterized by recurrent ischemic
episodes, cognitive deficits, behavioral disor-
ders, and migraine-type headaches. Encepha-
lopathy and reversible coma have been re-
ported in several patients. Encephalopathy
usually begins with a typical migraine head-
ache. The patient may go on to develop focal
signs, such as visual field defects or hemipa-
resis, and then become severely encephalo-
pathic, lapsing into coma.
450–452
In one series,
six of 70 patients with the disorder presented
with an encephalopathy originally misdiag-
nosed as acute encephalitis. The patients were
febrile and four had convulsions. All had a
history of migraine with aura and all the epi-
sodes seemed to start with an otherwise typical
headache. The patients showed multiple white
matter abnormalities on MRI, particularly
abnormalities at the anterior temporal pole as
well as the external capsule and corpus callo-
sum.
450
A characteristic finding is electron-
dense granules in the media of arterioles. Such
granules sometimes can be identified on skin
biopsy.
453
MISCELLANEOUS NEURONAL
AND GLIAL DISORDERS
This category includes several primary CNS
disorders of diverse or unknown cause that
usually culminate in stupor or coma. Most pri-
mary neuronal and glial disorders cause coma
only after a period of profound dementia has
led the physician to the appropriate diagnosis.
The disorders included below occasionally pro-
duce unconsciousness sufficiently early in their
course that they may be confused with other
conditions described in this book. As a result, a
brief discussion of their clinical picture and dif-
ferential diagnosis seems warranted. Although
276
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
some of these diseases are caused by transmis-
sible agents (e.g.,Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, pro-
gressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy), they
are arbitrarily categorized separately from the
encephalitides and acute toxic encephalopathies
because their onset is less acute and their course
not so explosive.
Prion Diseases
Prions are infectious proteinaceous particles
(membrane glycoproteins) that, when in cer-
tain conformations, can cause infectivity with-
out the presence of nucleic acid.
409
Human
prion diseases include the several forms of
Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD) and Gerst-
mann-Strau¨ssler disease, as well as fatal famil-
ial insomnia. The latter group and most cases of
Gerstmann-Strau¨ssler disease and some cases
of CJD are due to inherited mutations in the
prion protein gene. However, most cases of
CJD are sporadic. Kuru, one of the first prion
disorders to be described, occurred among
natives of Papua, New Guinea, who reportedly
ate the brains of their relatives as part of a
funeral ritual. When this practice was aban-
doned, the disorder disappeared. The disorder
can also be transmitted from infected tissues
transplanted to uninfected individuals (iatro-
genic CJD) or from the ingestion of meat from
cows with bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(a variant of CJD that affects primarily young
people and causes early psychiatric symptoms).
CJD is rare, having an incidence of between 0.5
and 1.5 cases per million people per year. CJD
is a subacute disorder producing widespread
neuronal degeneration and spongiform patho-
logic changes in the neocortex and cerebel-
lum.
409
Clinically, the illness usually affects middle-
aged adults. Initial symptoms roughly are di-
vided into thirds. The first third complain of
fatigue, anorexia, and insomnia. The second
third have behavioral or cognitive changes rap-
idly progressing to dementia. The final third
present with focal signs, particularly visual loss,
ataxia, aphasia, and motor defects.
The illness progresses over a period of weeks
to months with severe obtundation, stupor, and
finally unresponsiveness; 90% of patients die
within 1 year and many within a matter of 6 to 8
weeks of diagnosis. The motor system suffers
disproportionately with diffuse paratonic rigid-
ity; decorticate posturing and extensor plantar
responses develop later. Early in the course,
myoclonus appears in response to startle; later
the myoclonus occurs spontaneously. Some suf-
fer generalized convulsions. The EEG is char-
acteristic, consisting of a flat, almost isoelectric
background with superimposed synchronous
periodic sharp waves. The CSF examination is
usually normal. A protein called 14-3-3, and
particularly its gamma isoform, has been re-
ported to be present in CSF from many pa-
tients with CJD,
454
but both false positives and
false negatives occur,
455
and a reliable and re-
producible version of the test is currently un-
available. The MRI may be characteristic.
456
In some patients there is bilateral symmetric
hyperintensity in the caudate nucleus and pu-
tamen on FLAIR and diffusion-weighted im-
ages. A similar appearance of lesions in the
pulvinar is also diagnostic (‘‘pulvinar sign’’).
457
Additional patients may show cortical hype-
rintensity on diffusion-weighted imaging, es-
pecially in the parietal and occipital regions.
Unilateral or asymmetric findings are common
early in the course of the disease, but eventu-
ally become bilateral and more extensive. The
hyperintensity on diffusion-weighted imaging
is accompanied by a decrease in the apparent
diffusion constant, suggesting restricted water
diffusion. The MRI is both more sensitive and
specific than EEG. However, when taken to-
gether in the appropriate clinical setting, the
disorder may be diagnosed without the need
for biopsy.
458
In the final stage of the disease,
all spontaneous movements cease, and the pa-
tients remain in coma until they die of intercur-
rent infection.
The appearance of subacute dementia with
myoclonic twitches in a middle-aged or elderly
patient without systemic disease is highly sug-
gestive of the diagnosis. Although there is a
tendency to mistake the early symptoms for an
involutional depression, the organic nature of
the disorder rapidly becomes apparent. A sim-
ilar picture is produced only by severe meta-
bolic diseases (e.g., hepatic encephalopathy) or
CNS syphilis (general paresis).
Fatal insomnia is predominantly familial but
can occur in a sporadic form.
410
The onset is
disrupted sleep, including loss of sleep spindles
and slow-wave sleep. Dementia, myoclonus,
ataxia, dysarthria, dysphagia, and pyramidal
signs follow. Hypometabolism can be demon-
strated by PET in thalamic and limbic areas.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
277
Like the changes in CJD, there is severe neu-
ronal loss and astrogliosis.
410
Adrenoleukodystrophy
(Schilder’s Disease)
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD; Schilder’s dis-
ease) is an X-linked disease of white matter
inherited as a sex-linked recessive trait that
affects male children, adolescents, and rarely
adults
459,460
; it occasionally causes coma early
in its course.
461
Although Schilder originally
described a similar condition in three boys, the
exact diagnosis in his cases has been challenged
(e.g., one may have been subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis) and this eponym is now rarely
used. The illness comes in two forms. The first,
called pure adrenal myeloneuropathy, affects
myelin in the spinal cord and, to a lesser de-
gree, peripheral nerves. It also causes adrenal
insufficiency in some patients. There may be
abnormalities on MRS in the brain, but cere-
bral symptoms do not occur. A mild version of
this form is also occasionally seen in female
carriers (heterozygotes) of the disease. The
second form is a rapidly progressive inflam-
matory myelinopathy beginning in the poste-
rior hemisphere that probably results from an
immune response to the very-long-chain fatty
acids that accumulate in the disease. MR find-
ings of demyelination in parietal and occipital
areas, and the relatively acute onset, may sug-
gest multiple sclerosis, but the presence of very-
long-chain fatty acids in the serum establishes
the diagnosis.
Many patients have biochemical evidence of
adrenocortical failure even in the absence of
clinically apparent insufficiency. CSF protein is
usually elevated and the gamma globulin is
sometimes elevated. The EEG is usually slow,
with focal slow and sharp abnormalities.
Marchiafava-Bignami Disease
Marchiafava-Bignami disease is a rare disorder
of the white matter that was originally believed
to affect predominantly Italian males who were
heavy drinkers of red wine. It is now recog-
nized, however, that the disease has no demo-
graphic restriction and affects chronic alcoho-
lics no matter what form of alcohol they take;
most of the victims are males.
462
The essential
lesion is demyelination of the corpus callosum
with extension of the demyelination into the ad-
jacent hemispheres. Axons may either be pre-
served or destroyed, and there are an abun-
dance of fatty macrophages without evidence
of inflammation in the lesion. Presumably, the
ultimate cause is a deficiency of some critical
nutrient.
About 40% of patients present with the acute
onset of stupor or coma, and only half of these
have prodromal cognitive or behavioral symp-
toms.
462
The other 60% present with cognitive
and gait dysfunction. Comatose patients may
be rigid, with increased reflexes and extensor
plantar responses. The diagnosis is established
by MRI, with hyperintensity on FLAIR in the
corpus callosum, sometimes involving only the
splenium. Multiple cortical or subcortical le-
sions are sometimes present as well.
463,464
About 20% of comatose patients die; the rest
recover, often with residual neurologic de-
fects.
462
The disease may be related to central
pontine myelinolysis, which is described in
Chapter 4 and which may also involve the cor-
pus callosum.
Gliomatosis Cerebri
Gliomatosis cerebri implies diffuse infiltration
of the brain by neoplastic glial cells. The term is
used if three or more lobes of the brain are
involved. Histologically, the tumor can be as-
trocytic or oligodendroglial and can be low or
high grade.
465
Gliomatosis cerebri produces
symptoms that begin insidiously and progress
slowly with clinical illnesses lasting from less
than a month to as long as a decade or more.
Mental and personality symptoms predominate
with memory loss, lethargy, slowed thinking, and
confusion gradually leading into sleepiness, stu-
por, and often prolonged coma. Hemiparesis is
fairly common, but rapidly evolving focal neu-
rologic defects are rare. Less than half the pa-
tients have seizures, but focal or generalized sei-
zures may be the presenting complaint. About
one-quarter of the patients show signs of direct
brainstem involvement. Indirect evidence of
increased ICP has marked the course of many
cases because continued tumor growth produces
simple enlargement of the brain or a narrowing
of CSF fluid drainage pathways. The MR scan
278
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
shows either multiple or diffuse areas of high
intensity on FLAIR images involving largely the
white matter, but the cortex and often basal
ganglia and brainstem as well. Even in the ab-
sence of substantial signal abnormality, small
ventricles suggest increased brain mass. Abnor-
malities on the MRI are often much more dra-
matic than the patient’s clinical symptoms. The
hyperintense areas may or may not enhance de-
pending on the grade of the lesion. Cerebral bi-
opsy is necessary to make a definitive diagnosis.
The following case description typifies the
course and findings.
Patient 5–27
A 61-year-old woman insidiously became disin-
terested in her surroundings and slow in thought
during the early spring of 1978. By June, she
was lethargic, forgetful, apathetically incontinent,
and could no longer walk unassisted. In another
hospital, a ventricular shunt was placed without
changing her symptoms. She gradually became
mentally unresponsive and was admitted to New
York Hospital in September 1978. On examination
she was awake but psychologically unresponsive,
reacting only to noxious stimuli with an extensor
(decerebrate) response. The pupils were 2 mm in
diameter, equal, and fixed to light. She had roving
eye movements with a gaze preference to the right.
Oculocephalic responses were full and conjugate,
but caloric irrigation with cold water in the right
ear produced irregular upbeat nystagmus, while
irrigation in the left ear evoked irregular nystagmus
to the right. She had a spastic left hemiparesis and
a flaccid right hemiparesis with bilateral extensor
plantar responses.
Numerous laboratory tests, including examina-
tion of the CSF, CT scan, and arteriogram, were
either normal or nonspecifically altered. A brain
biopsy taken from the grossly normal-appearing
right frontal lobe gave the appearance of a diffuse
gemistocytic astrocytoma with considerable vari-
ation in the degree of malignant change, as well as
areas of normal-looking neurons and astrocytes.
The patient died in a nursing home soon afterward.
Comment: The insidious onset of changes in
cognition and arousal accompanied by signs of
fractional damage to the midbrain (fixed pupils),
pontine vestibular complex (abnormal calorics),
and corticospinal systems placed the lesion dif-
fusely in the brainstem and perhaps the dien-
cephalon. The CT scan and other tests showed no
discrete mass lesions and led to a cerebral biopsy
as one of the few possible ways of making a firm
diagnosis.
Progressive Multifocal
Leukoencephalopathy
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
(PML)
466
(Figure 5–12) is a subacute demye-
linating disorder produced when a strain of pa-
povavirus (the JC virus) infects the nervous
system. The disorder occurs in patients who are
immunosuppressed from AIDS, lymphoma, or-
gan transplants, or various forms of chemother-
apy. An outbreak occurred in patients treated
with natalizumab, a selective adhesion molecule
inhibitor that has been used to treat multiple
sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease.
467
The drug was removed from the market, but has
been reintroduced with appropriate safety
warnings. PML has rarely been reported in in-
dividuals whose immune system appears intact.
The neurologic symptoms are implied by the
name of the disorder, a progressive asymmetric
disorder of white matter with hemiparesis, vi-
sual impairment, sensory abnormalities, and
ataxia. Headaches and seizures are rare. The
course is usually progressive over several
months, terminating in coma. Rarely, there may
be edema associated with the demyelinating
plaques, leading to hemispheral swelling and
transtentorial herniation. Patients may have focal
cognitive disorders if the areas of leukoenceph-
alopathy affect areas of association cortex, but
do not have impairment of consciousness until
late in the course. The CSF is usually normal, Dostları ilə paylaş: |