Plan introduction
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Metaphor
- Sentence variety
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Alliteration: Close repetition of consonants, used for effect
Assonance: Close repetition of vowels, used for effect Colloquialisms: Informal words, such as slang and regional terms Diction: The correctness of the overall grammar (big picture) or how characters speak, such as with an accent or with poor grammar Jargon: Terms specific to a certain field Metaphor: A means to compare two elements (Can also be big-picture if an entire story or scene is laid out to show a parallel with something else) Repetition: Using the same words or phrases in a short amount of time for emphasis Rhyme: When the same sounds appear in two or more words Rhythm: having a musicality to the writing such as by using stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry or sentence variety or repetition in a paragraph Sentence variety: Variation in the structure and length of consecutive sentences Syntax: The arrangement of words in a sentence Elements of style are the characteristics of the language used in the written work, and stylistics is their study. How an author uses them is what makes one writer's work distinct from another, from Henry James to Mark Twain to Virginia Woolf. An author's way of using the elements creates their distinct writing voice. Stylisticians: In many ways, stylistics is an interdisciplinarity study of textual interpretations, using both language comprehension and an understanding of social dynamics. A stylistician's textual analysis is influenced by rhetoric reasoning and history[9]. Michael Burke describes the field in "The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics" as an empirical or forensic discourse critique, wherein the stylistician is "a person who with his/her detailed knowledge of the workings of morphology, phonology, lexis, syntax, semantics, and various discourse and pragmatic models, goes in search of language-based evidence in order to support or indeed challenge the subjective interpretations and evaluations of various critics and cultural commentators." Burke paints stylisticians, then, as a kind of Sherlock Holmes character who has expertise in grammar and rhetoric and a love of literature and other creative texts, picking apart the details on how they operate piece by piece—observing style as it informs meaning, as it informs comprehension. There are various overlapping subdisciplines of stylistics, and a person who studies any of these is known as a stylistician[10]: Literary stylistics: Studying forms, such as poetry, drama, and prose Interpretive stylistics: How the linguistic elements work to create meaningful art Evaluative stylistics: How an author's style works—or doesn't—in the work Corpus stylistics: Studying the frequency of various elements in a text, such as to determine the authenticity of a manuscript Discourse stylistics: How language in use creates meaning, such as studying parallelism, assonance, alliteration, and rhyme Feminist stylistics: Commonalities among women's writing, how writing is engendered, and how women's writing is read differently than men's Computational stylistics: Using computers to analyze a text and determine a writer's style Cognitive stylistics: The study of what happens in the mind when it encounters language 3. It falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive features. Unlike other formal styles, the publicist style has spoken varieties, in particular, the oratorical sub-style. The development of radio and television has brought into being a new spoken variety in the radio and television commentary. The other two are the essay and articles in newspapers, journals and magazines. The general aim of the publicist style is to exert influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well[11]. This brain-washing function is most effective in oratory, for here the most powerful instrument of persuasion is brought into play: the human voice. Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, the publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose or official documents, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other. It’s coherent and logical syntactic structure, with an expanded system of connectives and its careful paragraphing, makes it similar to scientific prose. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning, the use of imagery and other stylistic devices as in emotive prose. The publicistic style also has some elements of emotionally colored colloquial style as the author has no need to make their speech impersonal (as in scientific or official style), but, on the contrary, he or she tries to approximate the text to lively communication, as though they were talking to people in direct contact. The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. The most obvious purpose of oratory is persuasion, and it requires eloquence. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law. The sphere of application of oratory is confined to appeal to an audience and therefore crucial issues in such spheres as science, art, or business relations are not touched upon. Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. In its leading feature, however, the oratorical style belongs to the written variety of language, though it is modified by the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures[12]. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: a) direct address to the audience by special formulas (Ladies and Gentlemen!; My Lords!; Mr. Chairman!; Honorable Members!; Highly esteemed members of the conference!; or, in less formal situation, Dear Friends!; or, with a more passionate coloring, My Friends!). Expressions of direct address can be repeated in the course of the speech and may be expressed differently (Mark you! Mind!). b) Special formulas at the end of the speech to thank the audience for their attention (Thank you very much; Thank you for your time). c) the use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you: We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness18. d) The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others: We’re talking about healing our nation. We’re not talking about politics. We’re all here to do everything in our power to save lives; I’m here to thank you for hearing that call. Actually, I shouldn’t be thanking you, I should be thanking a Higher Power for giving you the call19. e) Features of colloquial style such as asking the audience questions as the speaker attempts to reach closer contact: Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the government of others? Or have we found angels in the forms of kings to govern him?20, or calling upon the audience: Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and republican principles (ibid). Like the colloquial style, oratory is usually characterized by emotional coloring and connotations, but there is a difference. The emotional coloring of the publicist style is lofty ; it may be solemn, or ironic, but it cannot have the lowered connotations (jocular, rude, vulgar, or slangy) found in colloquial speech. The vocabulary of speeches is usually elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of high-flown style: Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived and so dedicated in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this2113. The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. If the desire of the speaker is to rouse the audience and to keep it in suspense, he will use various traditional stylistic devices. Stylistic devices are closely interwoven and mutually complementary thus building up an intricate pattern. For example, an antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate; we cannot consecrate; we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be dedicated to the great task remaining before us; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom and that the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth22. As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetition to enable his listeners to follow him and retain the main points of the speech. Repetition is also resorted to in order to persuade the audience, to add weight to the speaker’s opinion. The following extract from the speech of the American Confederate general, A.P. Hill, on the ending of the Civil War in the U.S.A. is an example of anaphoric repetition: It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of war. It is high time that counsel were taken from statesmen, not demagogues: It is high time the people of the North and South understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in each other. A mere repetition of the same idea and in the same linguistic form may bore the audience and destroy the speaker-audience contact, therefore synonymous phrase repetition is used instead, thus filling up the speech with details and embellishing it, as in this excerpt from a speech on Robert Burns: For Burns exalted our race, he hallowed Scotland and the Scottish tongue. Before his time we had for a long period been scarcely recognized; we had been falling out of recollection of the world. From the time of the Union of the Crowns, and still more from the legislative union, Scotland had lapsed into obscurity. Except for an occasional riot, or a Jacobite rising, her existence was almost forgotten. (All those different phrases simply repeat the idea that nobody knew us, Scots, before). Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of the English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. It will be no exaggeration to say that almost all typical syntactical devices can be found in English oratory. Questions are most frequent because they promote closer contact with the audience. The change of intonation breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern and revives the attention of the listeners: No? You don’t want to leave the U.N. to the Europeans and Russians? Then let’s stop bellyaching about the U.N., and manipulating our dues, and start taking it seriously for what it is a global forum that spends 95 percent of its energy endorsing the wars and peacekeeping missions that the U.S. wants endorsed, or taking on the thankless humanitarian missions that the U.S. would like done but doesn’t want to do itself. The U.N. actually spends only 5 percent of its time annoying the U.S. Not a bad deal!23 The desire of the speaker to convince and to rouse his audience results in the use of simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditional ones, as fresh and genuine stylistic devices may divert the attention of the listeners away from the main point of the speech. Besides, unexpected and original images are more difficult to grasp and the process takes time. Absence of exclamatory sentences, break-in-the narrative, other expressively charged constructions. Articles demonstrate more syntactical organisation and logical arrangement of sentences. 4. The subject and content of stylistics as a science of language are still not exactly defined, so the problems of stylistics attract more and more attention of linguists, philologists and other specialists. Many linguists agree that stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies all the variety of expressive means of the language. Stylistics occupies a special place among other language disciplines. In contrast to language disciplines that analyze the composition of language and its categories, stylistics affects various expressive possibilities of language that are characteristic of specific varieties of language use, i.e. styles. Language stylistics explores the specifics of language subsystems – functional styles and sublanguages characterized by the peculiarity of vocabulary, phraseology and syntax on the one hand, and the emotional, expressive and evaluative properties of various language means on the other hand. Speech stylistics studies individual original texts, considering how they convey the content, not only following the norms known to the grammar and stylistics of the language, but also on the basis of their belonging to the functional styles of the English language. This is its task as a separate science among other language disciplines. The term "style" has several interpretations. It can indicate a particular differential variety of language, where style is "a language subsystem with a peculiar vocabulary, phraseological combinations, turns and constructions, which differs from other varieties mainly in the expressive and evaluative properties of its constituent elements and is usually associated with certain areas of speech use". Another interpretation of the style is related to the areas of the use of texts. The system of functional styles of the English literary language is formed by scientific, newspaper`s, journalistic, official business, oratorical, poetic, artistic and colloquial styles. Linguists consider these styles in various aspects. According to I. R. Halperin, the functional style of the language is a system of interrelated linguistic means that serves a specific purpose in human communication. Functional style should be considered as a product of a specific task set by the author of the message. Arnold notes that the emergence and existence of functional styles is due to the specific conditions of communication in different spheres of human activity. In recent years, the English language has undergone significant changes, primarily in the field of mass communication. These changes, predetermined by global changes in the economic and political life of society, require the translator to be fully aware of the situation in the world. Therefore, there is a need to correctly convey all the stylistic features of the original language with similar in use, equally familiar stylistic techniques of the translation language. It is known that many authors introduce certain constructions into the text, guided by their own methods; having understood them, the reader is able to better understand the information that the author of the original text wants to convey to him. The translator, as an intermediary between cultures, must convey different shades of the speech of native speakers for different conditions of the language communication. The role of visual and expressive means of language is to give speech clearness, clarity and imagery. Visual means make our speech illustrative, as they affect not only conceptually, but also figuratively, i.e. they give visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile information. Pictorial-expressive means are any means of expression used to achieve imagery. Visual-expressive means serve where the speaker or writer has some new idea that does not yet have any special name. Trope is "the concept of poetics and stylistics, denoting such turns (images) that are based on the use of a word (or a combination of words) in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of the speech". Visual and expressive means also help the author to gain individuality of the style, and also they help the translator to correctly translate the original text without losing its meaning and stylistic color. The image of the sense of the speech requires special stylistic figures, expressive colors of the language. They reveal themselves in the fact that the figurative expression appeared before the scientific-conceptual one: concrete-sensory representations – images, poetic language preceded analytical judgments. Stylistic figures of speech are earlier forms of intellection than similar scientific-logical syllogisms. These are also peculiar syllogisms, because they prove the imaginary truth of their conclusion. They contribute to the image, evaluation, and emotional coloring of written speech, convey information transmitted in a different way[14]. 5. Oratory skills are a combination of the abilities you need to have to speak publicly. Great public speakers have to perfect their oratory skills over time before being as articulate and impactful with their speeches. With the proper oratory skills, anyone can be a good public speaker. Key oratory skills you need to possess Charisma: Charisma is a feature that draws people’s attention, so it is an important public speaking skill. If you are personable and likable, people will enjoy listening to you, and that makes it easier for you to pass your message. Confidence: An audience is more likely to connect with a confident speaker that looks like they know what they are saying. When you exude confidence, you are viewed as more likable, intelligent, and believable. Passion: You can’t speak convincingly to an audience if you don’t look like you believe in what you’re saying. Audiences connect more with people that are visibly passionate and excited about their speech. Authenticity: To connect with your audience, they have to relate to you on a personal level. You have to be yourself and look as natural as possible while giving your speech. Practice until you sound like you’re speaking from the heart. Storytelling: Storytelling is one of the most important oratory skills because it simplifies ideas and draws an audience into the experience. They are more likely to remember a story than a boring speech. The following is a list of oratory skills to practice. Pick several to work on each time. The most important thing is to have fun, try out new things, learn new skills, and find you what style of public speaking works best for you. Eye Contact With specific individuals With the group as a whole Conscious breaks and pauses to create interest Look away then back before starting: Look at the group, look away briefly (creates interest in the viewer) look back, make eye contact and start Body Posture Upright Confident Hands in front Body Movement For transitions To build or keep suspense Gestures Show (conveys emotion) Give (hand up, invites openness) Tell (hands down, makes a point, gives direction) Point (accusation) Sign post (First, second, third, etc.) Articulation (speaking clearly) Vocal emphasis and variety Volume (how loud or how soft) Speed (slow down or speed up) Pitch (change octaves) Rhythm (variation of strong and weak elements) Example: Duration of the accent Example: iambic beat in poetry Silence Pauses before, during and after the speech Draws attention and emphasis Hooks and rhetorical devices See section on advanced public speaking Try identifying these in speeches your are watching try using these in speeches your create 7 Ways to Improve Your Oratory Skills Great pblic speakers are not born that way; most have to practice and perfect their oratory skills. The most well-known orators are Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King and Adolf Hitler. Their speeches delivered their message in a powerful, articulate way that resonated with their audiences. Below is a list of oratory skills that we can train ourselves in, so that our speeches are more clear, confident and successful. Grow your confidence The most fundamental oratory skill is confidence. It can be difficult to build confidence but practicing the other 6 techniques below, you will have greater faith in your ability to present. Some people find it useful to adopt an ‘on-stage persona’ of someone who is confident and influential, as then they can separate their speech from their natural self. They are then able to view their speech as more of a performance, and therefore act more confident. Expect to be nervous Prepare your speech Practice in a realistic environment Breathe deeply to expand vocal range Rehearse out loud Focus on your audience Visualize success Connect with your audience Yüklə 350,87 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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