examination of the unconscious patient is cov-
ered in detail in Chapter 2, but a brief reprise
is included here with emphasis on the ele-
ments that need to be covered quickly while
initiating therapy in a clinical setting.
The history should, to whatever extent pos-
sible, be obtained from relatives, friends, para-
medics, or sometimes even the police. If it has
not already been done, search the patient’s
belongings and check for a medical alert
bracelet. Implanted computer chips that give
full medical information are currently avail-
able, but are not yet in common use.
The history of onset is important. Coma of
sudden onset in a previously healthy patient
usually turns out to be self-induced drug poi-
soning, subarachnoid hemorrhage, head trauma,
or, in older persons, brainstem hemorrhage
or infarction. Most examples of supratentorial
Table 7–3 Specific Antidotes for
Agents Causing Delirium and Coma
Antidote
Indication
Naloxone
Opioid overdose
Flumazenil
Benzodiazepine overdose
Physostigmine
Anticholinergic overdose
(? gamma-hydroxybutyrate
toxicity)
Fomepizole
Methanol, ethylene
glycol toxicity
Glucagon
? Tricyclic overdose
Hydroxocobalamin
Cyanide overdose
Octreotide
Sulfonylurea hypoglycemia
Data from Ries and Dart.
37
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
317
mass lesions produce a more gradual impair-
ment of consciousness, as do the metabolic en-
cephalopathies.
In the general physical examination, after as-
sessing and dealing with abnormalities of vital
signs, look for evidence of trauma or signs that
might suggest an acute or chronic systemic med-
ical illness or the ingestion of self-administered
drugs. Evaluate nuchal rigidity, but take care
first to ensure that the cervical spine has not
been injured.
47
It is the neurologic examination that is most
helpful in assessing the nature of the patient’s
unconsciousness. Table 7–4 outlines the clin-
ical neurologic functions that provide the most
useful information in making a categoric diag-
nosis. These clinical indices have been exten-
sively tested and applied to patients. They have
Table 7–4 A Score Sheet for Examination of the
Comatose Patient
HISTORY (from Relatives or Friends)
Onset of coma (abrupt, gradual)
Recent complaints (headache, depression,
focal weakness, vertigo)
Recent injury
Previous medical illnesses (diabetes,
uremia, heart disease)
Previous psychiatric history
Access to drugs (sedatives, psychotropic
drugs)
Occupation (pesticides, CO exposure)
Exposure to pathogens (ticks, mosquitoes)
General Physical Examination
Vital signs
Evidence of trauma
Evidence of acute or chronic systemic
illness
Evidence of drug ingestion
(needle marks, alcohol on breath)
Nuchal rigidity (examine with care)
NEUROLOGIC PROFILE
Verbal responses
Oriented speech
Confused conversation
Inappropriate speech
Incomprehensible speech
No speech
Respiratory pattern
Regular
Periodic
Ataxic
Eye opening
Spontaneous
Response to verbal stimuli
Response to noxious stimuli
None
Pupillary reactions
Present
Asymmetric (describe)
Absent
Spontaneous eye movements
Orienting
Roving conjugate
Roving dysconjugate
Abnormal movements (describe)
None
Oculocephalic responses
Normal awake
Full comatose
Abnormal (describe)
Minimal
None
Oculovestibular responses
Normal awake (nystagmus)
Tonic conjugate
Abnormal (describe)
Minimal
None
Corneal responses
Present
Absent
Motor responses
Obeying commands
Localizing
Withdrawal
Abnormal flexion posturing
Abnormal extension posturing
None
Deep tendon reflexes
Normal
Increased
Absent
Skeletal muscle tone
Normal
Paratonic
Flexor
Extensor
Flaccid
318
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
proved themselves to be easily and quickly
obtained and to have a high degree of consis-
tency from examiner to examiner.
2,48–50
Fur-
thermore, they give valuable information upon
which to base both diagnosis and prognosis.
When serially recorded on a vital signs sheet as
best-worst changes during each 24 hours, the
result reflects accurately the patient’s clinical
course. The following paragraphs give the de-
tailed description of each clinical sign.
Verbal Responses
The best response, oriented speech, implies
awareness of self and the environment. The pa-
tient knows who he or she is, where he or she is,
why he or she is there, and the year, season, and
month. Confused conversation describes con-
versational speech with syntactically correct
phrases but with disorientation and confusion
in the content. Inappropriate speech means in-
telligible but with isolated words. The content
can include profanity but no sustained conver-
sation. Incomprehensible speech refers to the
production of word-like mutterings or groans.
The worst verbal response, no speech, applies
to total mutism.
Respiratory Pattern
The pattern is recorded as regular, periodic,
ataxic, or a combination of these. Respiratory
rate should be determined in patients not be-
ing mechanically ventilated.
Eye Opening
Patients with spontaneous eye opening have
some tone in the eyelids and generally dem-
onstrate spontaneous blinking, which differen-
tiates them from completely unresponsive pa-
tients whose eyes sometimes remain passively
open. Though spontaneous eye opening rules
out coma by our definition, it does not guar-
antee awareness. Some vegetative patients with
eye opening have been shown postmortem to
have total loss of the cerebral cortex (see Chap-
ter 9). Eye opening in response to verbal stim-
uli means that any verbal stimulus, whether
an appropriate command or not, produces eye
opening. More severely damaged patients dem-
onstrate eye opening only in response to a nox-
ious stimulus applied to the trunk or an extrem-
ity. (A noxious stimulus to the head commonly
evokes eye closing.) The worst response, no
eye opening, applies to all remaining patients
except when local changes such as periorbital
edema preclude examination.
Pupillary Reactions
Pupillary reactions to an intense flashlight beam
are evaluated for both eyes, and the better re-
sponse is recorded; use a hand lens or the plus
20 lens on the ophthalmoscope to evaluate
questionable responses. Record pupillary diam-
eters and note the presence of any somatic third
nerve paresis.
Spontaneous Eye Movement
The best response is spontaneous orienting eye
movements in which the patient looks toward
environmental stimuli. Record roving conjugate
and roving dysconjugate eye movements when
present, and reserve a miscellaneous movement
category for patients without orienting eye move-
ments who have spontaneous nystagmus, op-
soclonus, ocular bobbing, or other abnormal eye
movement. Absent spontaneous eye movements
should be noted, as should the presence of lat-
eral deviation to either side or dysconjugate gaze
at rest (e.g., skew).
Oculocephalic Responses
These are evaluated in conjunction with pas-
sive, brisk, horizontal head turning. When ap-
propriate, the response to vertical head move-
ment should also be recorded. Patients with
normal waking responses retain orienting eye
movements and do not have consistent oculo-
cephalic responses.Full oculocephalicresponses
are brisk and tonic and generally include con-
jugate eye movements opposite to the direction
of turning. Minimal responses are defined as
conjugate movements of less than 30 degrees or
bilateral inability to adduct the eyes. Absence
of response is the poorest level of function.
Remember, do not test oculocephalic reflexes in
patients suspected of having sustained a neck
injury.
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
319
Caloric Vestibulo-Ocular
Responses
These are tested by irrigating each external
auditory canal with up to 50 mL ice water with
the head 30 degrees above the horizontal plane
(Chapter 2). A normal (awake) response in-
cludes rapid nystagmus toward the nonirrigated
ear and minimal, if any, tonic deviation. Do not
use ice water (use tap water) in an awake patient.
An intact response in an unconscious patient
consists of tonic responses with conjugate devi-
ation toward the irrigated ear.
Corneal Responses
Responses to a cotton wisp drawn fully across
the cornea or, safer, sterile saline dripped onto
the cornea are recorded as present or absent
for the eye with the better response.
Motor Responses
These should be tested and recorded in all ex-
tremities and strength noted as normal or weak.
The best score is given to patients who obey
commands; care should be taken to avoid in-
terpreting reflex grasping as obedience. If a
command evokes no responses, apply a noxious
stimulus gently but firmly to each extremity
(compression of finger or toenail beds, or of
Achilles tendon) and to the supraorbital not-
ches or temporomandibular joints. Localizing
responses designate the use of an extremity to
locate or resist a remote noxious stimulus (e.g.,
the arm crossing the midline toward a cranial
stimulus or reaching above shoulder level to-
ward a cranial stimulus). A more primitive re-
sponse consists of a nonstereotyped, rapid with-
drawal from a noxious stimulus; this response
often incorporates hip or shoulder adduction.
An abnormal flexion response in the upper ex-
tremities is stereotyped, slow, and dystonic, and
the thumb is often held between the second
and third fingers. Abnormal flexion in the lower
extremities (the reflex triple flexion response)
sometimes can be difficult to distinguish from
withdrawal. An abnormal extension response in
the upper extremity consists of adduction and
internal rotation of the shoulder and pronation
of the forearm. No response is recorded only
when strong stimuli are applied to more than
one site and when muscle relaxants have not
recently been administered.
Tendon Reflexes
These reflexes are recorded for the best limb
as normal, increased, or absent; minimal re-
sponses are best regarded as normal.
Skeletal Muscle Tone
This should be recorded as normal, paratonic
(diffuse resistance throughout the range of pas-
sive motion), flexor (spasticity), extensor (rigid-
ity), or flaccid.
GUIDES TO SPECIFIC
MANAGEMENT
Supratentorial Mass Lesions
The differential characteristics that suggest a
supratentorial mass lesion producing stupor or
coma are outlined in Table 7–1. The laboratory
tests useful for the differential diagnosis of
stupor and coma are listed in Table 7–5.
If the physician elicits a history of headache
or prior head trauma, no matter how trivial, he
or she should consider a supratentorial mass
lesion. At times, the historian will be able to
describe symptoms or signs (facial asymmetry,
weakness of one arm, dragging of the leg, or
complaints of unilateral sensory loss) that ex-
isted prior to coma and suggest the presence
of a supratentorial lesion. The presence at the
initial examination of strikingly asymmetric mo-
tor signs, or of dysfunction progressing in a
rostral-caudal fashion, provides strong pre-
sumptive evidence of a supratentorial mass.
The combination of neurologic signs should
point to a single plane of diencephalic or brain-
stem dysfunction as illustrated in Chapter 3.
The combination of third nerve motor dysfunc-
tion and impaired pupillary responses evolving
as coma deepens suggest a supratentorial mass.
The major problem in differential diagnosis
arises when supratentorial mass lesions, either
extracerebral or in ‘‘silent’’ areas of the fore-
brain that do not produce obvious focal signs,
cause stupor or coma at the diencephalic stage
320
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
without producing preceding or accompanying
focal motor signs. Because such patients often
have reactive pupils, intact oculocephalic and
oculovestibular responses, and abnormal motor
signs that are symmetric or only mildly asym-
metric, the physician may suspect metabolic
encephalopathy rather than a supratentorial
mass. Unless there is a clear history to help one
differentiate, the physician should consider
both diagnostic categories and obtain an imme-
diate brain CT or magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) scan.
If the patient is suspected to be suffering
from a supratentorial mass, determine how se-
vere the symptoms are and estimate how rapidly
they are worsening. If the patient is stuporous
or comatose but relatively stable, procure an
emergency CT scan. A CT will rule out all sig-
nificant mass lesions and usually identify sub-
arachnoid hemorrhages. However, MRI, when
available, is more sensitive and may be re-
quired to identify recent cerebral infarcts, par-
ticularly in the brainstem, and focal inflamma-
tory lesions.
If the patient is deeply comatose, or if trans-
tentorial herniation is evolving rapidly in a stu-
porous patient, it is necessary to treat intracra-
nial hypertension first. The patient may initially
be hyperventilated by a mask and Ambu bag
while waiting for appropriate personnel and
equipment to intubate the patient. An arterial
sample for blood gas analysis should also be
taken after hyperventilation is begun. Hyper-
ventilation is the most rapid technique for
lowering ICP,
51
and may effectively withdraw
a patient from the edge of herniation within a
minute or two. The resulting decrease in PaCO
2
causes cerebral vasoconstriction, thus decreas-
ing cerebral blood flow (CBF). Although this
may also decrease CBF,
52
risking further brain
ischemia, lowering ICP is mandatory in patients
who are herniating and hyperventilation is the
fastest way to do it. In the absence of direct
measurement of ICP, one cannot be certain of
the best PaCO
2
level. We suggest the airway
be secured and the patient hyperventilated to a
PaCO
2
between 25 and 30 mm Hg. The higher
the ICP, and the lower the intracranial CSF
compensatory reserve, the more a given de-
crease in PaCO
2
will lower the ICP.
53
After
other treatment is under way, the PaCO
2
can be
increased to approximately 35 mm Hg. This
technique lowers ICP rapidly, but its effect is
transient. Hence, it is necessary to use the time
that is bought by hyperventilation to begin more
long-lasting efforts to reduce ICP.
Some evidence suggests that raising the head
of the bed to 30 degrees reduces ICP without
affecting mean arterial blood pressure (but see
page 43). On the other hand, this method raises
the differential between mean arterial pressure
and cerebral perfusion pressure,
54
and the net
effect on brain perfusion is difficult to measure
and may vary among patients.
55,56
Thus, even-
tually the position must be chosen based on
measurements of ICP.
Hyperosmolar agents should be adminis-
tered at the same time; they decrease the water
Table 7–5 Emergency Laboratory
Evaluation of Metabolic Coma
1. Stat tests
A. Venous blood
1. Glucose
2. Electrolytes
3. Urea or creatinine
4. Osmolality
5. Complete blood count
6. Coagulation studies
B. Arterial blood
1. Check color
2. pH
3. PO
2
4. PCO
2
5. Carboxyhemoglobin (if available,
especially if blood is bright red)
C. Cerebrospinal fluid
1. Cells
2. Gram stain
3. Glucose
D. Electrocardiogram
2. Additional tests*
A. Venous blood
1. Liver function tests
2. Thyroid and adrenal function
3. Blood cultures
4. Viral titers
B. Urine
1. Culture
C. Cerebrospinal fluid
1. Protein
2. Culture
3. Viral and fungal antibodies, polymerase
chain reaction
*These tests are ‘‘additional,’’ because in most hospitals it
will take hours to days to get the results. The blood and
cerebrospinal fluid for these tests, however, is drawn at the
same time as the stat tests.
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
321
content of the brain by creating an osmolar
gradient between the blood and that portion of
the brain with an intact blood-brain barrier.
Because most brain lesions cause local break-
down of the blood-brain barrier, hyperosmolar
agents pull water from normal brain, which
may lower ICP,
57
but do not reduce the size of
such lesions. Fortunately, this does not appear
to deleteriously affect brain shifts.
57
Mannitol
is the agent most used; it is given in a 20% so-
lution at a dose of 1.5 to 2 g/kg by bolus injec-
tion. Its effects are rapid and last several hours.
Mannitol also lowers blood viscosity, increasing
cerebral perfusion, and may also act as a free
radical scavenger. However, repeated doses of
mannitol increase the risk of renal failure. Re-
cently, hypertonic saline has gained favor as an
alternative to mannitol. Doses in the range of
7 to 10 g of NaCl, in concentrations from 3%
to 23.4%, have been administered by rapid in-
jection, or in some cases by continuous intra-
venous infusion titrated to ICP.
58,59
The re-
sults in general were comparable to mannitol;
the brain dehydration could be maintained for
several days and there have been few compli-
cations.
In patients with brain tumors, whether pri-
mary or metastatic, subdural or epidural he-
matomas and empyemas, or other mass lesions
that incite neovascularization with blood ves-
sels that lack a blood-brain barrier, adrenal
corticosteroids dramatically reverse signs and
symptoms of herniation. Substantial clinical
improvement is seen within 6 to 12 hours even
though changes in water content of the brain
may not be seen for days.
60,61
The dose re-
quired to reverse herniation in patients with
brain tumors is unknown, but given the seri-
ousness of the situation, high doses are desir-
able. The typical initial dose is 10 mg of dexa-
methasone, although as much as 100 mg of
dexamethasone can be given safely as an in-
travenous bolus. (In awake patients, the bo-
lus may cause severe genital paresthesias
62
;
the agent can be dripped in over 10 to 15 min-
utes.)
The exact mechanism of the salutary re-
sponse is unknown. Steroids decrease the trans-
fer constant of substances across a disrupted
blood-brain barrier within an hour, and they
may increase clearance of edema fluid in the
extracellular space, but substantial changes in
brain water are not seen for many hours or
days.
60,61
They also improve compliance of brain
tissue and diminish the plateau waves (sudden
transient increase in ICP that may increase
transtentorial herniation).
63
Corticosteroids are also indicated in patients
with suspected bacterial meningitis.
64
The drug
should be started prior to or at the time anti-
biotics are given. A dose of 10 mg every 6 hours
is standard.
64
The role of corticosteroids in
cerebral vascular disease is controversial.
65,66
Most current evidence suggests that steroids do
not improve the course of patients with cerebral
infarction or cerebral hemorrhage. The brain
edema in stroke is largely cytotoxic, rather than
vasogenic, and steroids do not produce the dra-
matic amelioration of the symptoms of brain
edema seen in patients with tumors. Further-
more, the hyperglycemic effects of steroids may
actually deleteriously affect the outcome. Cor-
ticosteroids are contraindicated in patients with
head injury.
67
The above steps should require no more than
a few minutes to bring the ICP under control.
Once it is controlled, procure a CT or, if avail-
able, an MRI. The scan will demonstrate the
nature of the supratentorial mass lesion and
often determines the degree of transtentorial
herniation as well. If a subdural or epidural
hematoma is identified, it should be evacuated
immediately.
68,69
Similarly, a brain abscess re-
quires urgent surgery to decompress the lesion
and establish cultures. If one of these lesions is
suspected clinically and the patient is deterio-
rating rapidly, a neurosurgeon should be con-
tacted at the time of imaging. For brain tumors,
it is sometimes best to allow the steroids to re-
duce the level of edema for several days prior to
Dostları ilə paylaş: |