Thiamine (100 mg IV) followed by glucose (if < 40 mg/dL, 10 ml aliquots of a 50% solution
until blood glucose > 60 mg/dL)
Naloxone if opioid overdose is suspected (0.4-2.0 mg IV q 3 min or continuous IV infusion 0.8 mg/kg/hr)
Flumazenil if benzodiazepine overdose suspected (0.2 mg/min, maximum dose 1 mg IV)
After intubation, gastric lavage with activated charcoal if drug intoxication is suspected
NEUROLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
HEAD CT, CERVICAL SPINE, IF STRUCTURAL CAUSE
DETAILED HISTORY AND SYSTEMIC EXAMINATION
CONSIDER EEG, LUMBAR PUNCTURE,MRI
Figure 7–1. Algorithm for initial emergent management of the comatose patient. CT, computed tomography; ECG,
electrocardiograph; EEG, electroencephalograph; GCS, Glasgow Coma Scale; ICP, intracranial pressure; MAP, mean
312
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
cus in the tube can be minimized by attaching
a freely vented hose to the endotracheal tube
and delivering humidified air (or oxygen, if nec-
essary). Because prolonged intubation can
cause laryngeal
14
or middle ear damage
15
or
sinusitis, some have suggested early tracheos-
tomy in critically ill trauma patients.
16
How-
ever, most patients can be safely maintained
for approximately 2 weeks. If prolonged coma
seems likely, a tracheostomy should be per-
formed after several days.
Maintain the Circulation
The circulation must be maintained if the brain
is to receive adequate oxygen. Check the blood
pressure and pulse. Insert an intravenous and
an intra-arterial line (a radial artery line is
as accurate as a central arterial line
17
), replace
blood volume loss, and infuse vasoactive agents
as needed. Dopamine, dobutamine, adrenaline,
norepinephrine, and vasopressin are the most
commonly used drugs. Current evidence does
not indicate which vasopressor is superior
18
;
however, vasopressin is becoming increasingly
popular.
19
Monitor the cardiac rate and rhythm
and treat unstable vital signs and cardiac ar-
rhythmias. If the patient is in shock, seek an
extracerebral source. Damage to the brain above
the level of the medulla does not cause systemic
hypotension (see Chapter 2).
Maintain the mean arterial pressure (MAP)
between 70 and 80 mm Hg
20
using hypertensive
and /or hypotensive agents as necessary (MAP ¼
1/3 systolic þ 2/3 diastolic). In general, hyper-
tension should not be immediately treated un-
less diastolic pressure exceeds 120 mm Hg. A
number of intravenous agents are available to
treat hypertensive emergencies.
21
These in-
clude sodium nitroprusside (0.25 to 10 mg/kg/
minute), labetalol (20 to 80 mg bolus over
10 minutes), nicardipine (2 to 10 mg/hour), and
others.
21
In an older patient with known
chronic hypertension, do not allow the blood
pressure to fall below previously accustomed
levels, because the relative hypotension may
cause cerebral hypoxia. In young, previously
healthy patients, particularly those with de-
pressant drug poisoning, a systolic blood pres-
sure of 70 to 80 mm Hg is usually adequate.
However, if ICP is elevated, a higher MAP may
be necessary to maintain cerebral perfusion
pressure (e.g., MAP 65 mm Hg > ICP).
Measure the Glucose
The brain depends not only on oxygen and
blood flow, but also on an obligate use of glu-
cose for its homeostasis (see Chapter 5). Both
hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia have dele-
terious effects on the brain (see Chapter 5). If
the bedside blood glucose test reveals hypo-
glycemia, glucose should be given. (Glucose is
often given empirically along with thiamine
and naloxone [see below] by paramedics, be-
fore the patient arrives at the hospital.) Some
investigators give 25 g of glucose as a 50% so-
lution; others give glucose in 5g increments as
a 10% solution (50 mL). The latter technique
results in lower posttreatment blood glucose
levels preventing the development of hyper-
glycemia.
22
Increasing evidence suggests that
tight control of hyperglycemia using insulin
decreases morbidity in severely ill hyperglyce-
mic patients. Glucose should be maintained
between 80 and 110 mg/dL.
23
Even after a hy-
poglycemic patient has been treated with glu-
cose, care must be taken to prevent recurrent
hypoglycemia. Therefore, infuse glucose and
water intravenously until the situation has sta-
bilized.
ADMINISTER THIAMINE
Wernicke’s encephalopathy is a rare cause of
coma.
33
However, many patients admitted as
emergencies in stupor or coma are chronic
alcoholics or otherwise malnourished.
34,35
In
such a patient, a glucose load may precipitate
acute Wernicke’s encephalopathy.
36
Therefore,
it is important to administer 50 to 100 mg thia-
mine at the time glucose is given or shortly
thereafter.
Lower the Intracranial Pressure
The methods are described under supratento-
rial mass lesions, page 320.
Stop Seizures
Repeated seizures of whatever etiology cause
brain damage and must be stopped.
24
Treat
generalized convulsions with intravenous
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
313
lorazepam (up to 0.1 mg/kg). Figure 7–2 is a
recently published algorithm for the treatment
of status epilepticus. A ventilator must be avail-
able, since large doses of the drug may depress
breathing. Once the seizures have stopped,
give intravenous phenytoin 15 mg/kg at 50 mg/
minute or fosphenytoin at the same dosage of
phenytoin equivalents, but at 100 to 150 mg/
minute. Intravenous valproic acid may also be
used at 40 to 60 mg/kg at a rate of 20 mg/minute
to maintain seizure control. However, at these
rates, it takes at least 20 minutes to administer
1,000 mg of phenytoin and more than an hour
to give doses of valproate above 1,200 mg.
Hence, it is not unusual for seizures to recur
during the administration of the antiepileptic
drug, and this may require additional loraze-
pam. At times, generalized seizures cannot be
stopped with the above agents and anesthesia
with propofol, midazolam, or pentobarbital is
necessary. Because these drugs further suppress
respiration, the patient should be intubated at
this point as well if this has not been done al-
ready. All of these drugs have short half-lives,
and are given at dosages that produce elec-
troencephalographic (EEG) burst suppression.
Diazepam rectal gel
15–20 mg
5 min
30 min
or
Intravenous lorazepam
2 mg, may repeat once
or
Intravenous diazepam
5 mg, may repeat once
Intravenous midazolam
0–2 mg/kg bolus
0.05 mg/kg/h
or
+
Intravenous lorazepam
up to 0.1 mg/kg
or
Propofol loading
2–5 mg/kg
CIV 2–10 mg/kg/h
or
Midazolam
loading 0.2 mg/kg
CIV 0.2–2 mg/kg/h
Pentobarbital
loading up to 10 mg/kg
≤25 mg/min
CIV 0.5–2 mg/kg/h
or
Ketamine
bolus 1.5 mg/kg
CIV 0.01–0.05 mg/kg/h
and/or
Other drugs
Intravenous diazepam
up to 0.25–0.4 mg/kg
Intravenous
fosphtenytoin/
phenytoin
20–30 mg/kg
Before emergency room
Intensive-care unit
Emergency room
Intravenous
valproic acid
40–60 mg/kg
3 mg/kg/min
Refractory status epilepticus
Impending status epilepticus
Established status epilepticus
Electroencephalographic monitoring?
Airway, blood pressure, temperature, intravenous access, electrocardiagraphy, CBC, glucose, electrolytes, AED levels, ABG, tox screen, central line?
Figure 7–2. Management of status epilepticus. Impending or established status epilepticus: start with 20 mg/kg of fos-
phenytoin or phenytoin, and if status epilepticus persists, give an additional 10 mg/kg. Follow the flow chart UNLESS
there is a history of drug intolerance (e.g., allergy to phenytoin or benzodiazepine)—then replace by IV valproic acid 40 to
60 mg/kg or IV phenobarbital 20 mg/kg; UNLESS treatment-induced hypotension slows rate of delivery, or UNLESS
history of progressive (PME) or juvenile (JME) myoclonus epilepsy (phenytoin/fosphenytoin harmful in PME, ineffective
in JME)—replace with IV valproic or IV phenobarbital; UNLESS tonic status epilepticus with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
(might be worsened by benzodiazepines)—replace with IV valproic acid or IV phenobarbital; UNLESS acute intermit-
tent porphyria—avoid P450 inducers, replace by nasogastric (NG) gabapentin (is possible) or by IV valproic acid;
UNLESS, focal status epilepticus without impairment of consciousness—IV treatment not indicated, load anticonvulsants
orally or rectally. Refractory status epilepticus: IV valproic acid: start with 40 mg/kg and, if status epilepticus persists, give
an additional 20 mg/kg. Continuous intravenous infusion (CIV) usually starts with the lower dose, which is titrated to
achieve seizure suppression and is increased as tolerated if tachyphylaxis develops. Ketamine: rule out increased
intracranial pressure before administration. Other drugs: felbamate, topiramate, levetiracetam, lidocaine, inhalation an-
esthetics, etc.: dosage and pharmacokinetics of most anticonvulsants must be adjusted appropriately in patients with
hepatic or renal failure, or with drug interactions. Some patients in refractory status epilepticus will need systemic and
pulmonary artery catheterization, with fluid and vasopressors as indicated to maintain blood pressure. ABG, arterial blood
gas; AED, antiepileptic drug; CBC, complete blood count. (From Chen and Wasterlain,
24
with permission.)
314
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Alternatively, some physicians prefer intrave-
nous boluses of phenobarbital 65 mg every 3 to
5 minutes (which has a longer half-life) until
seizures cease. Typically, the patient must re-
main in a deeply drug-induced coma for at
least 24 hours, followed by attempts to wean
the patient off the anesthetic doses of medica-
tion. Importantly, approximately 10% to 20% of
patients presenting with impaired conscious-
ness show nonconvulsive status epilepticus on
EEG examination (Chapter 5).
25,26
Nonconvul-
sive status epilepticus also causes brain injury
and requires the same treatment as general-
ized motor seizures. Focal continuous epilepsy,
by contrast, frequently occurs with metabolic
brain disease, but is less threatening to the
brain, and does not require the use of anes-
thetic doses of anticonvulsant drugs.
Treat Infection
Many different infections cause delirium or
coma, and infection may exacerbate coma from
other causes. Draw blood cultures on all febrile
patients and those who are hypothermic with-
out obvious cause. As indicated in Chapter 3, if
there is a strong suspicion of bacterial menin-
gitis, empiric antibiotic therapy should begin im-
mediately after blood cultures are drawn. In one
large series of patients with sepsis treated in in-
tensive care units, cultures were positive in only
60% of patients.
27
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseu-
domonas species, and Escherichia coli were the
most common organisms. A third-generation
cephalosporin (cefotaxime, 2 g every 6 hours
or ceftriaxone 2 g every 12 hours) should be
started.
28,29
Some physicians add vancomycin
2 g every 12 hours to cover cephalosporin-
resistant S. pneumoniae. In elderly or obviously
immunosuppressed patients, ampicillin should
be added to cover Listeria monocytogenes. Cur-
rent evidence suggests that dexamethasone
added to the regimen decreases long-term com-
plications of the infection.
30
Because herpes
simplex encephalitis is a relatively common in-
fectious cause of coma (page 156), an antiviral
agent (e.g., acyclovir 10 mg/kg every 8 hours)
should be started if clinically indicated. In im-
munosuppressed patients, fungal and parasitic
infections must also be considered, but because
they tend to be less acute, they can await eval-
uation by imaging and spinal fluid examination.
Other infections causing coma (Chapter 5) must
be considered and, in appropriate circumstan-
ces, treated.
As discussed in Chapter 3, it is generally nec-
essary in a comatose patient to obtain a com-
puted tomography (CT) scan prior to attempting
lumbar puncture (Figure 7–3). If there is no
evidence of a mass lesion, or if cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) cultures can be obtained within the
first hour or two after antibiotics are adminis-
tered, it may still be possible to identify the or-
ganism and its antibiotic sensitivities.
Restore Acid-Base Balance
With severe metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, the
pH should be returned to a normal level by
treating the cause, as metabolic acidosis can lead
to cardiovascular abnormalities and metabolic
alkalosis can depress respiration. Respiratory
acidosis presages respiratory failure and warns
the physician that ventilatory assistance may
soon be needed. The elevated CO
2
also raises
ICP. Respiratory alkalosis can cause cardiac ar-
rhythmias and hinders weaning from ventila-
tory support.
Adjust Body Temperature
Several metabolic and structural abnormalities
lead to either hyperthermia or hypothermia, and
these states may exacerbate abnormalities of
cerebral metabolism.
31
Hyperthermia is dan-
gerous because it increases cerebral metabolic
demands and, at extreme levels, can denature
brain cellular proteins.
32
The body tempera-
ture above 38.58C of hyperthermic patients
should be reduced using antipyretics and, if
necessary, physical cooling (e.g., cooling blan-
ket). Significant hypothermia (below 348C) can
lead to pneumonia, cardiac arrhythmias, elec-
trolyte disorders, hypovolemia, metabolic aci-
dosis, impaired coagulation, and thrombocy-
topenia and leukopenia.
31
Patients should be
gradually warmed to maintain a body temper-
ature above 358C.
Administer Specific Antidotes
Many patients entering an emergency room in
coma are suffering from drug overdose. Any of
the gamut of sedative drugs, alcohol, opioids,
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
315
tranquilizers, and hallucinogens may have been
ingested singly or in combination. Most drug
overdoses are best treated by the supportive
measures considered in a subsequent section.
Because these patients have ingested multiple
agents, specific antagonists are often not use-
ful.
38
Even the so-called coma cocktail
3
(dex-
trose, thiamine, naloxone, and flumazenil) is
rarely helpful and may be harmful.
39
However,
when there is a strong suspicion that a specific
agent has been ingested, certain antagonists
specifically reverse the effects of several coma-
producing drugs.
For opioid overdose, naloxone may be given
at 0.4 to 2.0 mg IV every 3 minutes or by con-
tinuous IV infusion at 0.8 mg/kg/hour until con-
sciousness is restored. This drug must be used
with great care, because in a patient physically
dependent on opioids, the drug may cause
acute withdrawal symptoms requiring opioid
therapy.
40
(If the patient is a known or sus-
pected opioid addict, 0.4 mg naloxone should
be diluted in 10 mL of saline and given slowly.
One should use the minimum amount neces-
sary to establish the diagnosis by pupillary di-
lation and reverse the comatose state.) Nalox-
one has a duration of action from 2 to 3 hours,
much shorter than the action of several opi-
oid drugs, especially methadone. Thus, patients
who have taken an overdose of opioids, and
whose toxic reactions are reversed by naloxone,
may lapse back into coma after a few hours and
require further treatment.
Benzodiazepine overdose can be treated with
flumazenil, a specific competitive benzodiaze-
pine receptor antagonist
41
(0.2 mg/minute to a
maximum dose of 1 mg IV). Flumazenil acts
within minutes and has a half-life of about 40 to
75 minutes. However, the drug is not often used
because it can precipitate acute withdrawal in
chronic users and blockade of the benzodiaze-
pine receptor may unmask epileptogenic fea-
tures of common medications such as tricyclic
antidepressants or theophylline.
41
Specific clin-
ical features of benzodiazepine intoxication
should be present (see Chapter 5).
No Mass
?LP
Mass
CT scan
Healthy
Cefotaxime 2G/q6hrs or cephtriaxone 2G/12hrs
± Vancomycin 2G/q 12hrs
Dexamethasone 10mg/q6hrs x 4 days
Cefotaxime 2G/q6hrs or cephtriaxone
2G/12hrs
Vancomycin 2G/q 12hrs
Amoxicillin
Elderly or
immunosuppressed
Acute bacterial meningitis (clinically
suspected)
No LP
Bacterial Meningitis
Non-Bacterial Meningitis
Etiology known:
Continue antibiotics (according to
sensitivity), dexamethasone
Aetiology unknown:
Continue empiric therapy
Continue dexamethasone
Discontinue antibacterial drugs and
dexamethasone
Commence appropriate therapy
Figure 7–3. Therapeutic approach to a patient with acute bacterial meningitis. Empiric addition of amoxicillin is indicated
for meningitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes. Continuation or change of antibiotics is guided by the results of cere-
brospinal fluid analysis, blood culture, bacterial sensitivity to antibiotics, and clinical status of the patient. Steroid treatment
in meningitis is unlikely to be of benefit if the diagnosis is delayed, if antibiotics have not been given, or if meningitis is
Gram-negative bacillar or requires aminoglycoside antibiotics. Unless pneumococcal meningitis is proven or strongly sus-
pected, dexamethasone use is not recommended in immunosuppressed or malnourished patients and in patients with other
system infections. HSE, herpes simplex encephalitis; LP, lumbar puncture. (Modified from Chaudhuri.
102
)
316
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Certain effects of sedative drugs that have
anticholinergic properties, particularly the tri-
cyclic antidepressants and possibly gamma-
hydroxybutyrate, can be reversed by the in-
travenous injection of 1 mg physostigmine.
However, its use is controversial as it may
cause seizures and cardiac arrhythmias; because
of its potential side effects and short duration
of action, it is rarely used.
37
Specific antidotes
for several other agents are discussed in
Chapter 5 and indicated in Table 7–3.
Control Agitation
Many patients who are delirious or stuporous
are grossly agitated. The hyperactivity is dis-
tressing to patients and family and may lead to
self-injury. Sedative dosages of drugs should
be avoided until the diagnosis is clear and one
is certain that the problem is metabolic rather
than structural. Agitation can be controlled
by keeping the patient in a lighted room and
asking a relative or staff member to sit at the
bedside and talk reassuringly to the patient.
Small doses of lorazepam 0.5 to 1.0 mg orally
with additional doses every 4 hours as needed
may control agitation. If this proves insuffi-
cient,
42
haloperidol 0.5 to 1.0 mg twice daily
orally or intramuscularly may be used; additional
doses can be given every 4 hours as needed. In
patients who have habitually ingested alcohol or
sedative drugs, larger doses may be necessary
because of cross-tolerance. A recent report sug-
gests that valproate, benzodiazepine, and/or an-
tipsychotics may relieve agitation when the pri-
mary drugs have failed.
43
For very short-term
sedation, as might be necessary to perform a CT
scan, intravenous sedation with propofol or mid-
azolam may be used,
44
as these are short acting
and midazolam can be reversed at the end of
the procedure.
Physical restraints should be avoided when-
ever possible, but sometimes they are necessary
for severely agitated patients. Take care to en-
sure that body restraints do not interfere with
breathing and that limb restraints do not oc-
clude blood flow or damage peripheral nerves.
The restraints should be removed as soon as the
agitation is controlled.
Protect the Eyes
Corneal erosions can occur within 4 to 6 hours
if the eyes of comatose patients remain partially
or fully opened. Exposure keratitis may lead to
secondary bacterial corneal ulcerations. To pre-
vent such changes, lubricate the eyes with a lu-
bricating artificial tears ointment every 4 hours
45
or apply a polyethylene corneal bandage.
46
Re-
peated testing of the corneal reflex with cotton
can also damage the cornea. A safer technique
is to drip sterile saline onto the cornea from a
distance of 4 to 6 inches.
2
EXAMINATION OF THE PATIENT
Once the vital functions have been protected,
proceed with the history and examination. The Dostları ilə paylaş: |