Similarly, the premotor area for vertical sac-
cades and gaze holding, respectively, are found
in the rostral interstitial nucleus of the MLF
and rostral interstitial nucleus of Cajal, which
surround the oculomotor nucleus laterally. A
premotor area for vergence eye movements is
found at the rostral tip of this region, near the
midbrain-diencephalic junction. Unilateral le-
sions of the rostral interstitial nuclei typically
reduce vertical saccades as well as causing
torsional nystagmus.
99,100
Compression of the
midbrain from the tectal surface (e.g., by a pi-
neal tumor) causes loss of vertical eye move-
ments, usually beginning with upgaze.
The PPRF and rostral interstitial nuclei are
under the control of descending inputs from
the superior colliculus. Each superior collicu-
lus contains a map of the visual world on the
contralateral side of space, and electrical stim-
ulation of a specific point in this visual map will
command a saccade to the corresponding point
in space. In nonmammalian vertebrates, such as
frogs, this area is called the optic tectum and is
the principal site for directing eye movement;
in mammals, it comes largely under the control
of the cortical system for directing eye move-
ments.
The cortical descending inputs to the ocular
motor system are complex.
101
The frontal eye
fields (area 8) direct saccadic eye movements
to explore behaviorally relevant features of the
contralateral side of space. However, it would
be incorrect to think of this area as a motor
cortex. Unlike neurons in the primary motor
cortex, which fire in relation to movements of
the limbs in particular directions at particu-
lar joints, recordings from area 8 neurons in
awake, behaving monkeys indicate that they
do not fire during most random saccadic eye
movements. However, they are engaged dur-
ing tasks that require a saccade to a particular
part of space only when the saccadic eye
movement is part of a behavioral sequence that
is rewarded. In this respect, neurons in area
8 are more similar to those in areas of the
prefrontal cortex that are involved in planning
movements toward the opposite side of space.
Area 8 projects widely to both the superior
colliculus as well as the premotor areas for ver-
tical and lateral eye movements, and to the
ocular motor nuclei themselves.
102
Descend-
ing axons from area 8 mainly run through the
internal medullary lamina of the thalamus to
enter the region of the rostral interstitial nu-
cleus of the MLF. They then cross the midline
to descend along with the MLF to the con-
tralateral PPRF and abducens nucleus.
In the posterior part of the hemisphere, in
the ventrolateral cortex near the occipitopari-
etal junction, is an area of visual cortex, some-
times called area V5 or area MT, that is im-
portant in judging movement of objects in
contralateral space.
101,103
Cortex in this region
plays a critical role in following movements
originating in that space, including movements
62
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
toward the ipsilateral space. Thus, following
an object that travels from the left to the right
engages the right parietal cortex (area 7) to fix
attention on the object, the right area 8 to
produce a saccade to pick it up, the right oc-
cipital cortex to follow the object to the right,
and ultimately the left occipital cortex as well
to see the object as it enters the right side of
space. Thus, following moving stripes to the
right, as in testing optokinetic nystagmus, en-
gages a number of important cortical as well as
brainstem pathways necessary to produce eye
movements. Hence, although the test is fairly
sensitive for picking up oculomotor problems
at a cortical and brainstem level, the interpre-
tation of failure of optokinetic nystagmus is a
complex process.
In addition to these motor inputs, the ocular
motor neurons also receive sensory inputs to
guide them. Although there are no spindles in
the ocular motor muscles to provide somatic
sensory feedback, the ocular motor nuclei de-
pend on two different types of sensory feed-
back. First, visual feedback allows the rapid cor-
rection of errors in gaze. Second, the ocular
motor nuclei receive direct and relayed inputs
from the vestibular system.
104
Because the
eyes must respond to changes in head position
very quickly to stabilize the visual image on
the retina, the direct vestibular input, which
identifies angular or linear acceleration of the
head, is integrated to providing a signal for
rapid correction of eye position. The abducens
nucleus is located at the same level as the
vestibular complex, and it receives inputs from
the medial and superior vestibular nuclei. Ad-
ditional axons from these nuclei cross the mid-
line and ascend in the contralateral MLF to
reach the trochlear and oculomotor nuclei.
These inputs from the vestibular system allow
both horizontal and vertical eye movements
(vestibulo-ocular reflexes) in response to ves-
tibular stimulation.
Another sensory input necessary for the
brain to calculate its position in space is head
position and movement. Ascending somatosen-
sory afferents, particularly from the neck mus-
cles and vertebral joint receptors, arise from the
C2–4 levels of the spinal cord. They ascend
through the MLF to reach the vestibular nuclei
and cerebellum, where they are integrated with
vestibular sensory inputs.
The vestibulocerebellum, including the floc-
culus, paraflocculus, and nodulus, receives ex-
tensive vestibular input as well as somatosen-
sory and visual afferents.
101
The output from
the flocculus ensures the accuracy of saccadic
eye movements and contributes to pursuit eye
movements and the ability to hold an eccen-
tric position of gaze. The vestibulocerebellum
is also critical in learning new relationships
between eye movements and visual displace-
ment (e.g., when wearing prism or magnifica-
tion glasses). Lesions of the vestibulocerebel-
lum cause ocular dysmetria (inability to perform
accurate saccades), ocular flutter (rapid to-and-
fro eye movements), and opsoclonus (chaotic
eye movements).
105
It may be difficult to dis-
tinguish less severe cases of vestibulocerebellar
function from vestibular dysfunction.
Because the MLF conveys so many classes
of input from the pontine level to the mid-
brain, lesions of the MLF have profound ef-
fects on eye movements. After a unilateral
MLF lesion, the eye ipsilateral to the lesion
cannot follow the contralateral eye in conju-
gate lateral gaze to the other side of space (an
internuclear ophthalmoplegia, a condition that
occurs quite commonly in multiple sclerosis
and brainstem lacunar infarcts). The abducting
eye shows horizontal gaze-evoked nystagmus
(slow phase toward the midline, rapid jerks
laterally), while the adducting eye stops in the
midline (if the lesion is complete) or fails to
fully adduct (if it is partial). Bilateral injury to
the MLF caudal to the oculomotor complex not
only causes a bilateral internuclear ophthal-
moplegia, but also prevents vertical vestibulo-
ocular responses or pursuit. Vertical saccades,
however, are implemented by the superior
colliculus inputs to the rostral interstitial nu-
cleus of Cajal, and are intact. Similarly, ver-
gence eye movements are intact after caudal
lesions of the MLF, which allows the paresis of
adduction to be distinguished from a medial
rectus palsy. More rostral MLF lesions, how-
ever, may also damage the closely associated
preoculomotor areas for vertical or vergence
eye movements.
The Ocular Motor Examination
The examination of the ocular motor system in
awake, alert subjects involves testing both vol-
untary and reflex eye movements. In patients
with stupor or coma, testing of reflex eyelid and
ocular movements must suffice.
99
Examination of the Comatose Patient
63
EYELIDS AND CORNEAL RESPONSES
Begin by noting the position of the eyes and
eyelids at rest and observing for spontaneous
eye movements. The eyelids at rest in coma, as
in sleep, are maintained in a closed position by
tonic contraction of the orbicularis oculi mus-
cles. (Patients with long-term impairment of
consciousness who enter a persistent vegeta-
tive state have alternating cycles of eyes open-
ing and closing; see Chapter 9.) Next, gently
raise and then release the eyelids, noting their
tone. The eyelids of a comatose patient close
smoothly and gradually, a movement that can-
not be duplicated by an awake individual sim-
ulating unconsciousness. Absence of tone or
failure to close either eyelid can indicate facial
motor weakness. Blepharospasm, or strong re-
sistance to eyelid opening and then rapid clo-
sure, is usually voluntary, suggesting that the
patient is not truly comatose. However, lethar-
gic patients with either metabolic or structural
lesions may resist eye opening, as do some pa-
tients with a nondominant parietal lobe infarct.
In awake patients, ptosis may result from ei-
ther brainstem or hemispheric injury. In pa-
tients with unilateral forebrain infarcts, the
ptosis is often ipsilateral to hemiparesis.
106
In
cases of brainstem injury, the ptosis may be
part of a Horner’s syndrome (i.e., accompanied
by pupilloconstriction), due to injury to the lat-
eral tegmentum, or it may be due to an injury
to the oculomotor complex or nerve, in which
case it is typically accompanied by pupillodila-
tion. Tonically retracted eyelids (Collier’s sign)
may be found in patients with dorsal midbrain
or, occasionally, pontine damage.
Spontaneous blinking usually is lost in coma
as a function of the depressed level of con-
sciousness and concomitant eye closure. How-
ever, in persistent vegetative state, it may re-
turn during cycles of eye opening (Chapter 9).
Blinking in response to a loud sound or a
bright light implies that the afferent sensory
pathways are intact to the brainstem, but does
not necessarily mean that they are active at a
forebrain level. Even patients with complete
destruction of the visual cortex may recover
reflex blink responses to light,
107
but not to
threat.
108
A unilateral impairment of the speed
or depth of the eyelid excursion during blink-
ing occurs in patients with ipsilateral facial
paresis.
The corneal reflex can be performed by ap-
proaching the eye from the side with a wisp
of cotton that is then gently applied to the
sclera and pulled across it to touch the corneal
surface.
109
Eliciting the corneal reflex in coma
may require more vigorous stimulation than in
an awake subject, but it is important not to
touch the cornea with any material that might
scratch its delicate surface. Corneal trauma
can be completely avoided by testing the cor-
neal reflex with sterile saline. Two to three
drops of sterile saline are dropped on the
cornea from a height of 4 to 6 inches.
109
Reflex
closure of both eyelids and elevation of both
eyes (Bell’s phenomenon) indicates that the
reflex pathways, from the trigeminal nerve and
spinal trigeminal nucleus through the lateral
brainstem tegmentum to the oculomotor and
facial nuclei, remain intact. However, some
patients who wear contact lenses may have per-
manent suppression of the corneal reflex. In
other patients with an acute lesion of the des-
cending corticofacial pathways, the blink reflex
may be suppressed, but Bell’s phenomenon
should still occur. A structural lesion at the
midbrain level may result in loss of Bell’s phe-
nomenon, but an intact blink response. A le-
sion at the midpontine level may not only im-
pair Bell’s phenomenon, but also cause the
jaw to deviate to the opposite side (corneal-
mandibular reflex), a phenomenon that may
also occur with eye blink.
110
EXAMINATION OF OCULAR
MOTILITY
Hold the eyelids gently in an open position
to observe eye position and movements in a
comatose patient. A small flashlight or bright
ophthalmoscope held about 50 cm from the
face and shined toward the eyes of the patient
should reflect off the same point in the cornea
of each eye if the gaze is conjugate. Most pa-
tients with impaired consciousness demon-
strate a slight exophoria. If it is possible to ob-
tain a history, ask about eye movements, as a
congenital strabismus may be misinterpreted
as dysconjugate eye movements due to a brain-
stem lesion. Observe for a few moments for
spontaneous eye movements. Slowly roving eye
movements are typical of metabolic encepha-
lopathy, and if conjugate, they imply an intact
ocular motor system.
64
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
The vestibulo-ocular responses are then
tested by rotating the patient’s head (oculoce-
phalic reflexes).
99
In patients who may have
suffered trauma, it is important first to rule out
the possibility of a fracture or dislocation of the
cervical spine; until this is done, it may be nec-
essary to skip ahead to caloric testing (see be-
low). The head is rotated first in a lateral di-
rection to either side while holding the eyelids
open. This can be done by grasping the head
on either side with both hands and using the
thumbs to reach across to the eyelids and hold
them open. The head movements should be
brisk, and when the head position is held at
each extreme for a few seconds, the eyes should
gradually come back to midposition. Moving
the head back to the opposite side then pro-
duces a maximal stimulus. The eye movements
should be smooth and conjugate. The head is
then rotated in a vertical plane (as in head
nodding) and the eyes are observed for vertical
conjugate movement. During downward head
movement, the eyelids may also open (the
doll’s head phenomenon).
111
The normal response generated by the ves-
tibular input to the ocular motor system is
for the eyes to rotate counter to the direction
of the examiner’s movement (i.e., turning the
head to the right should cause the eyes to de-
viate to the left). In an awake patient, the vol-
untary control of gaze overcomes this reflex
response. However, in patients with impaired
consciousness, the oculocephalic reflex should
predominate. This response is often colloqui-
ally called the doll’s eye response,
111
and nor-
mal responses in both horizontal and vertical
directions imply intact brainstem pathways
from the vestibular nuclei through the lower
pontine tegmentum and thence the upper
pontine and midbrain paramedian tegmentum
(i.e., along the course of the MLF; see below).
There may also be a small contribution from
proprioceptive afferents from the neck,
112
which also travel through the medial longitu-
dinal fasciculus. Because these pathways over-
lap extensively with the ascending arousal sys-
tem (see Figure 2–8), it is quite unusual for
patients with structural causes of coma to have
a normal oculocephalic examination. In con-
trast, patients with metabolic encephalop-
athy, particularly due to hepatic failure, may
have exaggerated or very brisk oculocephalic
responses.
Eye movements in patients who are deeply
comatose may respond sluggishly or not at all to
oculocephalic stimulation. In such cases, more
intense vestibular stimulation may be obtained
by testing caloric vestibulo-ocular responses.
With appropriate equipment, vestibulo-ocular
monitoring can be done using galvanic stimu-
lation and video-oculography.
113
However, at
the bedside, caloric stimuli and visual inspec-
tion are generally used (see Figure 2–9). The
ear canal is first examined and, if necessary,
cerumen is removed to allow clear visualiza-
tion that the tympanic membrane is intact. The
head of the bed is then raised to about 30
degrees to bring the horizontal semicircular
canal into a vertical position so that the re-
sponse is maximal. If the patient is merely
sleepy, the canal may be irrigated with cool
water (158C to 208C); this usually induces a
brisk response and may occasionally cause
nausea and vomiting. Fortunately, in practice,
it is rarely necessary to use caloric stimulation
in such patients. If the patient is deeply co-
matose, a maximal stimulus is obtained by us-
ing ice water. A large (50 mL) syringe is used,
attached to a plastic IV catheter, which is gently
advanced until it is near the tympanic mem-
brane. An emesis basin can be placed below the
ear, seated on an absorbent pad, to catch the
effluent. The ice water is infused at a rate of
about 10 mL/minute for 5 minutes, or until a
response is obtained. After a response is ob-
tained, it is necessary to wait at least 5 minutes
for the response to dissipate before testing the
opposite ear. To test vertical eye movements,
both external auditory canals are irrigated si-
multaneously with cold water (causing the eyes
to deviate downward) or warm water (causing
upward deviation).
The cold water induces a downward con-
vection current, away from the ampulla, in the
endolymph within the horizontal semicircular
canal. The effect of the current upon the hair
cells in the ampulla is to reduce tonic dis-
charge of the vestibular neurons. Because the
vestibular neurons associated with the hori-
zontal canal fire fastest when the head is turn-
ing toward that side (and thus push the eyes
to the opposite side), the result of cold water
stimulation is to produce a stimulus as if the
head were turning to the opposite side, thus
activating the ipsilateral lateral rectus and con-
tralateral medial rectus muscles to drive the
Examination of the Comatose Patient
65
Turn right
A
Brainstem intact
(metabolic
encephalopathy)
B
Right lateral
pontine lesion
(gaze paralysis)
C
MLF lesion
(bilateral internuclear
ophthalmoplegia)
D
Right paramedian
pontine lesion
(1 1/2 syndrome)
E
Midbrain lesion
(bilateral)
Right side
Left side
Bilateral
Bilateral
Cool water
Warm water
Turn left
Tilt back
Oculocephalic responses
Caloric responses
Tilt forward
66
Figure 2–9. Ocular reflexes in unconscious patients. The left-hand side shows the responses to oculocephalic maneuvers (which should only be done after the possibility of cervical
spine injury has been eliminated). The right-hand side shows responses to caloric stimulation with cold or warm water (see text for explanation). Normal brainstem reflexes in a
patient with metabolic encephalopathy are illustrated in row (A). The patient shown in row (B) has a lesion of the right side of the pons (see Figure 2–8), causing a paralysis of gaze
to that side with either eye. Row (C) shows the result of a lesion involving the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) bilaterally (bilateral internuclear ophthalmoplegia). Only
abducens responses with each eye persist. The patient in row (D) has a lesion involving both MLFs and the right abducens nucleus (one and a half syndrome). Only left eye
abduction is retained. Row (E) illustrates a patient with a midbrain infarction eliminating both the oculomotor and trochlear responses, leaving only bilateral abduction responses.
Note that the extraocular responses are identical to (C), in which there is a bilateral lesion of the MLF. However, pupillary light responses would be preserved in the latter case.
(From Saper, C. Brain stem modulation of sensation, movement, and consciousness. Chapter 45 in: Kandel, ER, Schwartz, JH, Jessel, TM. Principles of Neural Science. 4th ed.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000, pp. 871–909. By permission of McGraw-Hill.)
67
eyes toward the side of cold water stimulation.
Any activation of the anterior canal (which ac-
tivates the ipsilateral superior rectus and the
contralateral inferior oblique muscles) and the
posterior canal (which activates the ipsilateral
superior oblique and contralateral inferior rec-
tus muscles) by caloric stimulation cancel each
other out.
When caloric stimulation is done in an
awake patient who is trying to maintain fixation
(e.g., in the vestibular testing laboratory), cool
water (about 308C) causes a slow drift toward
the side of stimulation, with a compensatory
rapid saccade back to the midline (the direc-
tion of nystagmus is the direction of the fast
component). Warm stimulation (about 448C)
induces the opposite response. The traditional
mnemonic for remembering these movements
is ‘‘COWS’’ (cold opposite, warm same), which
refers to the direction of nystagmus in an
awake patient. This mnemonic can be con-
fusing for inexperienced examiners, as the re-
sponses seen in a comatose patient with an
intact brainstem are the opposite: cold water Dostları ilə paylaş: |