resume breathing. This cycle may be repeated
many times over the course of a night. The
fragmentation of sleep and intermittent hyp-
oxia result in chronic daytime sleepiness and
impairment of cognitive function, particularly
vigilance.
Excessive drowsiness during the day and
loud snoring at night may be the only clues.
Lethargy or drowsiness due to neurologic in-
jury may induce apneic cycles in a patient with
obstructive sleep apnea. However, as the level
of consciousness becomes more impaired, it
may be difficult to achieve the periodic arous-
als necessary to resume breathing.
Other patients with pauses in ventilation
have central sleep apnea. Most such patients
have congestive heart failure, and the pauses
are thought to be analogous to the periodic
breathing that is seen in patients who de-
velop Cheyne-Stokes respiration when they fall
asleep.
Failure of automatic breathing is a rare
condition, sometimes called Ondine’s curse,
named after the mythologic wood nymph whose
mortal lover lost autonomic functions when-
ever he went to sleep. In adults, Ondine’s curse
is seen after lesions of the ventrolateral med-
ullary chemosensory areas or bilateral damage
to the descending pathways that control auto-
matic respiration in the lateral columns of the
spinal cord (e.g., as a complication of cordot-
omy to relieve cancer pain).
57–62
In children, it
is most frequently seen as a congenital condi-
tion in infants, sometimes in association with
Hirschsprung’s disease, and either a neuroblas-
toma or pheochromocytoma, often associated
52
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
with a mutation in the PHOX2B gene.
63
A
variety of interventions have been successful,
ranging from a rocking bed, which provides con-
tinuous somatic sensory and vestibular stimula-
tion, to negative pressure ventilation, or even
diaphragmatic pacing.
64
YAWNING, HICCUPPING,
VOMITING
The neuronal pattern generators responsible
for coordinating respiratory-related behaviors
also are located in the ventrolateral medulla,
in close proximity to the nucleus ambiguus.
65
Yawning is a motor pattern that involves deep
inspiration associated with wide opening of the
jaw and generalized muscle stretching.
66,67
It
is seen even in patients who are locked in, and
hence is apparently organized at a medullary
level. Yawning may improve the compliance of
the lungs and chest wall, but its function is not
understood. It may be seen in lethargic pa-
tients, but yawning is also seen in complex par-
tial seizures emanating from the medial tem-
poral lobe, and is not of great localizing value.
Hiccups occur in patients with abdominal
or subphrenic pathology (e.g., pancreatic can-
cer) that impinges upon the vagus nerve.
68,69
Dexamethasone may induce hiccups; the mech-
anism is unknown.
70
Hiccups occasionally oc-
cur with lesions in the medullary tegmentum,
including neoplasms, infarction, hematomas,
infections, or syringobulbia. Because stuporous
patients with intracranial mass lesions are often
treated with corticosteroids to reduce brain
edema, it may be difficult to determine whe-
ther pressure on the floor of the fourth ven-
tricle from the mass lesion or the treatment
with corticosteroids is causing the hiccups.
71
Pathologic hiccupping is peculiarly more com-
mon in men; in a study of 220 patients at the
Mayo Clinic with pathologic hiccupping, all but
39 were men.
72
The hiccup reflex consists of a spasmodic
burst of inspiratory activity, followed 35 milli-
seconds later by abrupt glottic closure, so that
the ventilatory effect is negligible. On the other
hand, if the airway is kept open artificially (e.g.,
by tracheostomy), the inrush of air can be suf-
ficient to hyperventilate the patient. As an ex-
ample, one patient in New York Hospital with a
low brainstem infarct and tracheostomy main-
tained his total ventilation for several days by
hiccup alone.
Pathologic hiccups are difficult to treat.
73
A
number of drugs and physical approaches have
been tried, most of which do not work well.
Agents used to treat hiccups include pheno-
thiazines, calcium channel blockers, baclofen,
and anticonvulsants, gabapentin being the most
recent.
74
In steroid-induced hiccups, decreas-
ing the dose usually reduces the hiccups.
73
Vomiting is a reflex response involving co-
ordinated somatomotor (posture, abdominal
muscle contraction), gastrointestinal (reversal
of peristalsis), and respiratory (retching, breath
holding) components that are coordinated by
neurons in the ventrolateral medullary teg-
mentum near the compact portion of the nu-
cleus ambiguus. The vomiting reflex may be
triggered by vagal afferents
75,76
or by chem-
osensory neurons in the area postrema, a small
group of nerve cells that sits atop the nucleus
of the solitary tract in the floor of the fourth
ventricle, just at the level of the obex.
77
In patients with impaired consciousness,
vomiting is frequently due to lesions involving
the lateral pons or medulla, causing vestibular
imbalance. It occasionally occurs in patients
with irritative lesions limited to the region of
the nucleus of the solitary tract.
77
Such vomit-
ing is typically preceded by intense nausea.
More commonly, however, vomiting is due to a
sudden increase in intracranial pressure, such
as occurs in subarachnoid hemorrhage. The
pressure wave may stimulate the emetic re-
sponse directly by pressure on the floor of the
fourth ventricle, resulting in sudden, ‘‘projec-
tile’’ vomiting, without warning. This type of
vomiting is particularly common in children
with posterior fossa tumors. It is also seen in
adults with brain tumor, who hypoventilate
during sleep, resulting in cerebral vasodilation.
The small increase in intravascular blood vol-
ume, in a patient whose intracranial pressure is
already elevated, may cause a sharp increase in
intracranial pressure (see Chapter 3), resulting
in onset of an intense headache that may wa-
ken the patient, followed shortly thereafter by
sudden projectile vomiting. Children with pos-
terior fossa tumors may simply vomit without
headache.
Vomiting is also commonly seen in patients
with brain tumors during chemotherapy or
even radiation therapy. Tissue injury, particu-
larly in the gut, may release emetic hormones,
such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). GLP-
1 is detected by neurons in the area postrema,
Examination of the Comatose Patient
53
and it can induce a vomiting reflex.
78
The area
postrema contains both dopaminergic and se-
rotoninergic neurons, and the latter produce
emesis primarily by means of contacting 5HT
3
receptors.
77
Hence, drugs that block dopamine
D
2
receptors (e.g., chlorpromazine, metoclo-
pramide) or serotonin 5HT
3
receptors (ondan-
setron) are effective antiemetics.
PUPILLARY RESPONSES
The pupillary light reflex is one of the most ba-
sic and easily tested nervous system responses.
It is controlled by a complex balance of sym-
pathetic (pupillodilator) and parasympathetic
(pupilloconstrictor) pathways (see Figure 2–
6). The anatomy of these pathways is closely
intertwined with the components of the as-
cending arousal system. In addition, the pupil-
lary pathways are among the most resistant to
metabolic insult. Hence, abnormalities of pu-
pillary responses are of great localizing value
in diagnosing the cause of stupor and coma,
and the pupillary light reflex is the single most
important physical sign in differentiating met-
abolic from structural coma.
Examine the Pupils and
Their Responses
If possible, inquire if the patient has suffered
eye disease or uses eyedrops. Observe the pu-
pils in ambient light; if room lights are bright
and pupils are small, dimming the light may
make it easier to see the pupillary responses.
They should be equal in size and about the
same size as those of normal individuals in the
same light (8% to 18% of normal individuals
have anisocoria greater than 0.4 mm). Unequal
pupils can result from sympathetic paralysis
making the pupil smaller or parasympathetic
paralysis making the pupil larger. If one sus-
pects sympathetic paralysis (see Horner’s syn-
drome, page 58), dim the lights in the room,
allowing the normal pupil to dilate and thus
bringing out the pupillary inequality. Unless
there is specific damage to the pupillary sys-
tem, pupils of stuporous or comatose patients
are usually smaller than normal pupils in awake
subjects. Pupillary responses must be exam-
ined with a bright light. The eyelids can be held
open while the light from a bright flashlight
illuminates each pupil. Shining the light into
one pupil should cause both pupils to react
briskly and equally. Because the pupils are of-
ten small in stuporous or comatose patients and
the light reflex may be through a small range,
one may want to view the pupil through the
bright light of an ophthalmoscope using a plus
20 lens or through the lens of an otoscope.
Most pupillary responses are brisk, but a tonic
pupil may react slowly, so the light should il-
luminate the eye for at least 10 seconds. Moving
the light from one eye to the other may result
in constriction of both pupils when the light
is shined into the first eye, but paradoxically
pupillary dilation when the light is shined in
the other eye. This aberrant pupillary response
results from damage to the retina or optic
nerve on the side on which the pupil dilates
(relative afferent pupillary defect [RAPD]).
79
One of the most ominous signs in neurology
is a unilateral dilated and unreactive pupil. In a
comatose patient, this usually indicates oculo-
motor nerve compromise either by a posterior
communicating artery aneurysm or by tempo-
ral lobe herniation (see oculomotor responses,
page 60). However, the same finding can be
mimicked by unilateral instillation of atropine-
like eye drops. Occasionally this happens by
accident, as when a patient who is using a sco-
polamine patch to avert motion sickness in-
advertently gets some scopolamine onto a finger
when handling the patch, and then rubs the
eye; however, it is also seen in cases of facti-
tious presentation. Still other times, unilateral
pupillary dilation may occur in the setting of
ciliary ganglion dysfunction from head or facial
trauma. In most of these cases there is a frac-
ture in the posterior floor of the orbit that in-
terrupts the fibers of the inferior division of the
oculomotor nerve.
80
Injury to the third nerve
can be distinguished from atropinic blockade at
the bedside by instilling a dilute solution of pi-
locarpine into the eye (see pharmacology, page
56). The denervated pupil will respond briskly,
whereas the one that is blocked by atropine
will not.
81
Once both the ipsilateral and consensual
pupillary light reflexes have been noted, the
next step is to induce a ciliospinal reflex.
10
This
can be done by pinching the skin of the neck or
the face. The pupils should dilate 1 to 2 mm
bilaterally. This reflex is an example of a spin-
obulbospinal response (i.e., the pain stimulus
54
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
arises from the trigeminal or spinal dorsal horn,
must ascend to brainstem autonomic control
areas, and then descend again to the C8-T2
sympathetic preganglionic neurons). A normal
ciliospinal response ensures integrity of these
circuits from the lower brainstem to the spinal
cord, thus usually placing the lesion in the
rostral pons or higher.
Pathophysiology of Pupillary
Responses: Peripheral Anatomy
of the Pupillomotor System
The pupil is a hole in the iris; thus, change in
pupillary diameter occurs when the iris con-
tracts or expands. The pupillodilator muscle is
a set of radially oriented muscle fibers, running
from the edge of the pupil to the limbus (outer
edge) of the iris. When these muscles contract,
they open the pupil in much the way a draw-
string pulls up a curtain. The pupillodilator
muscles are innervated by sympathetic ganglion
cells in the superior cervical ganglion. These
axons pass along the internal carotid artery,
joining the ophthalmic division of the trigem-
inal nerve in the cavernous sinus and accom-
panying it through the superior orbital fissure,
into the orbit. Sympathetic input to the lid re-
tractor muscle takes a similar course, but sym-
pathetic fibers from the superior cervical gan-
glion that control facial sweating travel along
the external carotid artery. Hence, lesions of
the ascending cervical sympathetic chain up
to the superior cervical ganglion typically give
rise to Horner’s syndrome (ptosis, miosis, and
facial anhydrosis). However, lesions along the
course of the internal carotid artery may give
only the first two components of this syndrome
(Raeder’s paratrigeminal syndrome). The sym-
pathetic preganglionic neurons for pupillary
control are found in the intermediolateral col-
umn of the first three thoracic segments. Hence,
lesions of those roots, or of the ascending sym-
pathetic trunk between T1 and the superior
cervical ganglion, may also cause a Horner’s
syndrome with, depending on the exact site of
the lesion, anhydrosis of the ipsilateral face or
the face and arm.
B
A
Retinal
ganglion cell
Pupilloconstrictor
muscle in the iris
Ciliary
ganglia
III
nerve
LGN
MLF
Olivary pretectal
nucleus
Edinger-Westphal
nucleus
T
3
T
2
T
1
Superior
cervical
sympathetic
ganglion
3rd
neuron
Internal
carotid
artery
Ophthalmic
division
trigeminal
nerve
Long
ciliary nerve
Hypothalamus
Pupillodilator
muscle in the iris
Short
ciliary
nerve
Ciliary
ganglion
Figure 2–6. Two summary drawings indicating the (A) parasympathetic pupilloconstrictor pathways and (B) sympathetic
pupillodilator pathways. LGN, lateral geniculate nucleus; MLF, medial longitudinal fasciculus. (From Saper, C. Brain stem
modulation of sensation, movement, and consciousness. Chapter 45 in: Kandel, ER, Schwartz, JH, Jessel, TM. Principles of
Neural Science. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000, pp. 871–909. By permission of McGraw-Hill.)
Examination of the Comatose Patient
55
The pupilloconstrictor muscle consists of cir-
cumferentially oriented muscle fibers that nar-
row the pupil when they contract, in the same
manner as the drawstring of a purse. The para-
sympathetic neurons that supply the pupillo-
constrictor muscle are located in the ciliary
ganglion and in episcleral ganglion cells within
the orbit. The preganglionic neurons for pu-
pilloconstriction are located in the oculomotor
complex in the brainstem (Edinger-Westphal
nucleus) and they arrive in the orbit via the
oculomotor or third cranial nerve. The pu-
pilloconstrictor fibers travel in the dorsomedial
quadrant of the third nerve, where they are
vulnerable to compression by a number of
causes (Chapter 3), often before there is clear
impairment of the third nerve extraocular
muscles. As a result, unilateral loss of pupillo-
constrictor tone is of great diagnostic impor-
tance in patients with stupor or coma caused
by supratentorial mass lesions.
Pharmacology of the Peripheral
Pupillomotor System
Because the state of the pupils is of such im-
portance in the diagnosis of patients with coma,
it is sometimes necessary to explore the origin
of aberrant responses. Knowledge of the phar-
macology of the pupillomotor system is es-
sential to properly interpret the findings.
82
The
sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the tho-
racic spinal cord are cholinergic, and they act
upon a nicotinic type II receptor on the sym-
pathetic ganglion cells. The sympathetic ter-
minals onto the pupillodilator muscle in the
iris are noradrenergic, and they dilate the pupil
via a beta-1 adrenergic receptor.
In the presence of a unilateral small pupil,
it is possible to determine whether the cause
is due to failure of the sympathetic ganglion
cells or is preganglionic. In the latter case, the
ganglion cells are intact, but not active. The
pupil can then be dilated by instilling a few
drops of 1% hydroxyamphetamine into the
eye, which releases norepinephrine from sur-
viving sympathetic terminals. Because the
postsynaptic receptors have become hypersen-
sitive due to the paucity of neurotransmitter
being released, there is brisk pupillodilation
after instilling the eye drops. Conversely, if the
pupil is small due to loss of postganglionic
neurons or receptor blockade, hydroxyam-
phetamine will have little if any effect. Post-
ganglionic failure can be differentiated from
receptor blockade (e.g., instillation of eyedrops
containing a beta blocker such as are used to
treat glaucoma) by introduction of 0.1% adren-
aline drops, which have direct beta agonist
effects. Denervated receptors are hypersensi-
tive and there is brisk pupillary dilation, but a
pupil that is small due to a beta blocker does
not respond.
The pupilloconstrictor neurons in the ocu-
lomotor complex use acetylcholine, and they
act on the ciliary and episcleral ganglion cells
via a nicotinic II receptor. The parasympathetic
ganglion cells, by contrast, activate the pupil-
loconstrictor muscle via a muscarinic choliner-
gic synapse. In the presence of a dilated pupil
due to an injury to the third nerve or the post-
ganglionic neurons, the hypersensitive recep-
tors will constrict the pupil rapidly in response
to a dilute solution of the muscarinic agonist
pilocarpine (0.125%). However, if the enlarged
pupil is due to atropine, even much stronger
solutions of pilocarpine (up to 1.0%) will be
unable to constrict the pupil.
CENTRAL PATHWAYS CONTROLLING
PUPILLARY RESPONSES
It is important to understand the central path-
ways that regulate pupillary light responses, be-
cause dysfunction in these pathways causes the
abnormal pupillary signs seen in patients with
coma due to brainstem injury.
Preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the
C8-T2 levels of the spinal cord, which regu-
late pupillodilation, receive inputs from sev-
eral levels of the brain. The main input driving
sympathetic pupillary tone derives from the
ipsilateral hypothalamus. Neurons in the para-
ventricular and arcuate nuclei and in the lat-
eral hypothalamus all innervate the upper
thoracic sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
83
The orexin/hypocretin neurons in the lateral
hypothalamus provide a particularly intense in-
put to this area.
84
This input may be important,
as the activity of the orexin neurons is great-
est during wakefulness, when pupillodilation is
maximal.
85
The descending hypothalamic in-
put runs through the lateral part of the pontine
and medullary brainstem tegmentum, where it
is vulnerable to interruption by brainstem in-
jury.
7
Electrical stimulation of the descending
sympathoexcitatory tract in cats demonstrates
56
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
that it runs in a superficial position along the
surface of the ventrolateral medulla, just dor-
solateral to the inferior olivary nucleus.
86
Ex-
perience with patients with lateral medullary
infarction supports a similar localization in hu-
mans. Such patients have a central Horner’s
syndrome, which includes not only miosis and
ptosis, but also loss of sweating on the entire
ipsilateral side of the body. Thus, the sympa-
thoexcitatory pathway remains ipsilateral from
the hypothalamus all the way to the spinal
cord.
Other brainstem pathways also contribute to
pupillodilation. Inputs to the C8-T2 sympa-
thetic preganglionic column arise from a num-
ber of brainstem sites, including the Ko¨lliker-
Fuse nucleus, A5 noradrenergic neurons, C1
adrenergic neurons, medullary raphe seroto-
ninergic neurons, and other populations in the
rostral ventrolateral medulla that have not
been chemically characterized in detail.
8
As-
cending pain afferents from the spinal cord
terminate both in these sites as well as in the
periaqueductal gray matter. Brainstem sympa-
thoexcitatory neurons can cause pupillodilation
in response to painful stimuli (the ciliospinal
reflex).
10
They also provide ascending inhib- Dostları ilə paylaş: |