or electrolytes. Blood gases should be drawn
if there is any suspicion of respiratory insuf-
ficiency or acid-base abnormality. Urine can
then be collected for urinalysis and screening
for toxic substances or drugs (which may no
longer be detectable in the bloodstream). In a
woman of reproductive age, pregnancy test-
ing should also be done as this may affect the
evaluation (e.g., MRI scan may be preferable
to CT, if there is a choice). A bedside mea-
surement of blood glucose is sufficiently ac-
curate to rule out hypoglycemia and obviate
the need for giving glucose. However, if glu-
cose is given, 100 mg of thiamine should be
given as well to prevent precipitating Wernicke
encephalopathy (see Chapter 5).
Examination of the Comatose Patient
77
Computed Tomography Imaging
and Angiography
CT scanning is now ubiquitous, and it should
be applied to any patient who does not have an
immediately obvious source of coma (e.g., a
hypoglycemic patient who arouses with injec-
tion of IV glucose). However, it is still neces-
sary to complete the examination first, as a pa-
tient who is in incipient uncal herniation, or
whose fourth ventricle is compressed by a mass
lesion, may die even during the few minutes it
takes to get a scan, and may need to be treated
emergently first. Similarly, for comatose pa-
tients in whom meningitis is suspected, it is
now standard practice to give IV antibiotics
first, before taking the patient for a CT scan, to
rule out a mass lesion prior to doing a lumbar
puncture (but see discussion on lumbar punc-
ture below and on meningitis in Chapters 4
and 5).
Emergency CT scans done for diagnostic
purposes in patients with a depressed level
of consciousness may appear to be simple to
interpret. This is certainly the case for large,
acute hemorrhages or extensive infarcts. How-
ever, subacute infarction may become isodense
with brain during the second week, and hem-
orrhage may be isodense during the third week
after onset. Acute infarcts may be difficult to
identify, and if there is bilateral edema, it may
be quite difficult to distinguish from ‘‘hyper-
normal brain’’ (i.e., small ventricles and gen-
eral decrease in prominence of the sulci, which
may be seen in young normal brains, particu-
larly if the scan is not of good quality).
In such cases, it may be useful either to ob-
tain a CT scan with contrast, or to have an MRI
scan done (see below). Current-generation CT
scanners are fast enough that it is rarely nec-
essary to sedate a patient to eliminate motion
artifact. However, many MRI examinations still
take significantly longer, and they may be com-
promised if the patient moves. Such patients
may be sedated with a short-acting benzodiaze-
pine, which can be reversed if necessary with
flumazenil. However, conscious sedation should
only be done under the continuous supervision
of a physician who is capable of intubating the
patient if respirations are depressed or com-
promised.
Computed tomography angiography (CTA)
involves reconstruction of images of the in-
tracranial circulation from images acquired
during an intravenous bolus injection of con-
trast dye. Perfusion CT may also identify areas
of decreased perfusion, even in cases where
the plain CT does not yet show an infarct (see
Figure 2–11). CTA is highly accurate for dem-
onstrating occlusions or stenoses of intracra-
nial vessels, but does not give the resolution
of conventional direct imaging angiography.
The images can be acquired quickly and the
method is applicable to patients (see below)
who may not be eligible for magnetic reso-
nance angiography (MRA). However, extract-
ing the vascular images currently requires
more user interaction and takes longer than
MRA. The use of large amounts of contrast dye
can also be a drawback if the patient’s history
of dye reaction and renal function are not
available.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
and Angiography
MRI scans take substantially longer than CT
scans, and they are often less available for
emergency scanning. Hence, they are less of-
ten used for primary scanning of patients with
coma. However, in many cases, it is necessary
to obtain an MRI scan if a significant question
remains about the origin of the coma after the
CT imaging. Diffusion-weighted imaging may
demonstrate an infarct that otherwise cannot
be documented acutely. Additional sequences
that measure the apparent diffusion coefficient
of water in the brain (ADC mapping) and per-
fusion with blood can be used in cases where
the standard diffusion imaging is confounded
by background T2 bright lesions. This in turn
may lead to a lifesaving intervention (e.g., intra-
arterial tPA in the case of basilar artery oc-
clusion). MRA may also demonstrate arterial
occlusion noninvasively, and MR venography
may identify a dural sinus thrombosis. While
T1 and T2 MRI sequences are not as sensitive
as CT scanning for identifying acute blood,
the combination of fluid-attenuated inversion
recovery (FLAIR) and gradient echo T2* se-
quences is at least as sensitive in acute sub-
arachnoid hemorrhage and may be more sen-
sitive if the bleeding is subacute.
155
On the other hand, MR scanning has sig-
nificant limitations for its use in many coma-
tose patients. Because MRI scanners use a
78
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
high magnetic field, they are not compatible
with certain types of implants in patients, in-
cluding cardiac pacemakers and deep brain
stimulators. Patients who require mechanical
ventilation must either be ventilated by hand
during the scan or placed on a specialized
MR-compatible ventilator. In addition, most se-
quences take substantially longer than CT scans,
so that clear images require that the patient not
move.
MRA can reveal most stenoses or occlusions
of cerebral blood vessels. It requires only a few
additional minutes during a conventional MRI
scanning session, and the images are extracted
by computer and therefore can be recovered
very quickly. However, the MRA is very flow
dependent, and tends to exaggerate the degree
of stenosis in areas of slow flow.
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)
156
is
becoming increasingly important in the diag-
nosis and prognosis of patients with a variety of
illnesses that cause delirium, stupor, or coma
(Figure 5–7). The technique identifies neuro-
chemicals in regions of both normal and ab-
normal brain. Although special techniques al-
low the identification of as many as 80 brain
metabolites, most clinical centers using stan-
dard MRI machines perform proton (
1
H) MRS
Figure 2–11. A series of computed tomography (CT) scans through the brain of a patient with a left internal carotid
occlusion. Note that in the noncontrast CT scan in panel (A), there is loss of the gray-white differentiation and effacement
of the sulci over the middle cerebral artery distribution on the left. Panel (B) shows the perfusion blood flow map,
indicating that there is very low flow within the left middle cerebral artery distribution, but that there is also impairment of
blood flow in both anterior cerebral arteries, consistent with loss of the contribution from the left internal carotid artery.
Although the blood volume (C) is relatively normal in these areas, mean transit time (D) is also abnormal, indicating that
tissue in the anterior cerebral distributions is at risk of infarction.
Examination of the Comatose Patient
79
that can identify about 13 brain metabolites
(see Figure 5–7, page 226).
Myo-inositol (mI) is a sugar-like molecule
present in astrocytes. It helps to regulate cell
volume. Its presence serves as a marker of as-
trocytes. The metabolite is elevated in a number
of disorders including hyperosmolar states, pro-
gressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, renal
failure, and diabetes. Levels are decreased in
hyponatremia, chronic hepatic encephalopathy,
tumor, and stroke.
Creatine (Cr) is actually the sum of creatine
and phosphocreatine, a reliable marker of en-
ergy metabolism in both neurons and astro-
cytes. The total creatine peak remains constant,
allowing other peaks to be calculated as ratios
to the height of the creatine peak.
N-Acetylaspartate (NAA) is an amino acid
derivative synthesized in neurons and trans-
ported down axons. It marks the presence of
viable neurons, axons, and dendrites. Its levels
may be increased in hyperosmolar states and
are decreased in almost any disease that causes
destruction of neurons or their processes.
The choline (Cho) peak represents several
membrane components, primarily phospho-
choline and glycerophosphocholine. Choline is
found in higher concentration in glial cells and
is thus higher in white matter than gray matter.
It is increased in tumors (particularly relative
to NAA), strokes, and hyperosmolar states. It is
decreased in liver disease and hyponatremia.
Glutamate/glutamine (Glx) represents a mix-
ture of amino acids and amines involved in
excitatory and inhibitory transmission as well
as products of the Krebs cycle and mitochon-
drial redox systems. The peak is elevated in
hypoxic encephalopathy and in hyperosmolar
states; it is diminished in hyponatremia.
Lactate (Lac), not visible in normal brain, is
a product of anaerobic glycolysis and is thus
increased in hypoxic/ischemic encephalopa-
thy, diabetic acidosis, stroke, and recovery from
cardiac arrest. It is also increased in highly ag-
gressive tumors.
A lipid peak is not present in normal brain
but is identified in areas of brain necrosis,
particularly in rapidly growing tumors. Cere-
bral fat embolism (see Chapter 5) can also
cause a lipid peak.
157
The clinical use of some of these spectra in
stuporous or comatose patients is discussed in
Chapter 5.
Neurosonography
Intracranial Doppler sonography identifies
flow of blood in arteries, particularly the mid-
dle cerebral artery. The absence of flow in the
brain has been used to confirm brain death,
particularly in patients who have received sed-
ative drugs that may alter some of the clini-
cal findings (see Chapter 8).
158,159
The tech-
nique is also useful for following patients with
strokes, head injuries, and hypoxic/ischemic
encephalopathy.
160,161
The injection of gas-
filled microbubbles enhances the sonographic
echo and provides better delineation of blood
flow, occlusions, pseudo-occlusions, stenosis,
and collateral circulation.
162
Doppler studies of the extracranial carotid
circulation are frequently done as a routine
part of stroke evaluation at many centers. How-
ever, this is rarely helpful for patients in coma.
If the coma is due to a reversible stenosis or
occlusion of a single vessel, it almost always
will be in the vertebrobasilar, not the carotid,
circulation. If the patient is going to receive
an MRI scan, the MRA of the cervical ves-
sels, which examines both the carotid and the
vertebrobasilar circulation, is generally more
revealing.
Lumbar Puncture
Although often overlooked in the technologic
era, the examination of the CSF still plays a
central role in neurologic diagnosis, particu-
larly in patients with a depressed level of con-
sciousness. Once an imaging study has been
performed, it is necessary to proceed with lum-
bar puncture as soon as possible for patients
with no clear diagnosis. Rare patients in whom
subarachnoid hemorrhage was not detected
on imaging may demonstrate blood in the
CSF. Similarly, occasional patients with bac-
terial meningitis or viral encephalitis may pres-
ent with a depressed level of consciousness
(sometimes after a missed seizure), and may
not yet have sufficient meningismus to make
the diagnosis of meningitis clear from exami-
nation. This may be particularly difficult to
determine in patients who have underlying ri-
gidity of the cervical spine (evidenced by re-
sistance to lateral as well as flexion movements
80
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
of the neck). Nevertheless, it is imperative to
identify infection as early as possible to allow
the administration of antibiotics or antiviral
agents.
Patient 2–2
A 73-year-old woman who was on 10 mg/day of
prednisone for her ulcerative colitis had a 2-day
history of presumed gastroenteritis, with fever,
nausea, and vomiting. She awoke on the third
day and found it difficult to walk to the bath-
room. By the afternoon she had difficulty swal-
lowing, her voice was hoarse, and her left limbs
were clumsy. She was brought to the hospital by
ambulance, and examination in the emergency
department disclosed a lethargic patient who
could be easily wakened. Pupils were equal and
constricted from 3 to 2 mm with light, but the left
eye was lower than the right, she complained of
skewed diplopia, and there was difficulty main-
taining gaze to the left. There was left-sided facial
numbness and lower motor neuron facial weak-
ness. Hearing was intact, but her voice was hoarse.
The tongue deviated to the right and there was
distal weakness in her arms, and the left limbs
were clumsy on fine motor tasks and showed
dysmetria.
MRI scan showed a left pontomedullary le-
sion surrounded by edema, which was bright on
diffusion-weighted imaging, and she was diag-
nosed as having a brainstem infarct. However,
despite normal MRA of the vertebrobasilar system,
her deficits progressed over the next day. A se-
nior neuroradiologist noticed some enhancement
at the periphery of the lesion on review of the MRI
scan, and suggested an abscess. Lumbar puncture
disclosed 47 white blood cells/mm
3
and elevated
protein, and she recovered after being treated for
Listeria monocytogenes. An MRI scan much later
in her course, disclosing a multioculated abscess,
is shown in Figure 4–13.
Comment. This case demonstrates the impor-
tance of examining the spinal fluid, even when a
presumptive diagnosis of vascular disease is en-
tertained. This is particularly true in patients with
fever, elevated white blood cell count, or stiff neck,
where infectious disease is a consideration. How-
ever, every patient with an undetermined cause of
coma requires lumbar puncture as part of the rou-
tine evaluation.
The timing of lumbar puncture with respect
to CT scanning is discussed in Chapters 4 and
5. However, in some circumstances, scanning
may not be not immediately available. In these
cases it is common to give antibiotics imme-
diately and then do imaging and lumbar punc-
ture up to a few hours later. However, once the
antibiotics have penetrated the CSF, the abil-
ity to grow a bacterial pathogen and identify its
susceptibilities may be permanently compro-
mised. Hence, deferring lumbar puncture in
such cases until after the scanning procedure
may do the patient harm. For this reason, when
the evidence for meningitis is compelling, it
may be necessary to do the lumbar puncture
without benefit of prior imaging. As discussed
in Chapters 4 and 5, the danger of this pro-
cedure is greatly overestimated. If the exami-
nation is nonfocal, and there is no evidence of
papilledema on funduscopy, it is extremely
rare to precipitate brain herniation by lumbar
puncture. The benefit of establishing the exact
microbial diagnosis far outweighs the risk of
herniation.
A critical but often overlooked component
of the lumbar puncture is to measure and re-
cord the opening pressure. Elevated pressure
may be a key sign that leads to diagnosis of
venous sinus thrombosis, cerebral edema, or
other serious conditions that can cause coma.
In addition to the routine cell count, protein,
and glucose, CSF should be obtained for full
cultures, including tuberculosis and fungal
agents; serology and polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) for specific agents such as syphilis,
Lyme disease, and herpes encephalitis; and cy-
tology, as cancer or leukemia sometimes may
present with meningeal and subarachnoid in-
filtration. It is a good practice to set aside sev-
eral milliliters of refrigerated CSF in case ad-
ditional studies become necessary. This entire
group of tests typically requires about 20 mL
of CSF, an amount that the choroid plexus in
the brain restores within about an hour.
One common problem is that the lumbar
tap may be traumatic, yielding bloody CSF.
This may make it difficult to determine the
underlying numbers of both red and white
blood cells in the CSF. If the cells come from
the blood (rather than the white cells being
elevated within the CSF, e.g., due to infection),
the proportion of the red and white cells should
remain the same as in the blood (usually
Examination of the Comatose Patient
81
500 to 1,000 red cells per one white cell). If the
tap is bloody, many clinicians send fluid from
both tubes 1 and 4 for cell count. A falling
count indicates that the tap was traumatic, but
it does not tell you what the underlying CSF
counts were compared with the count in tube
4. Nor does lack of a falling cell count indicate
that the blood was there before the tap (the tip
of the needle may be partially within or ad-
jacent to a bleeding vein). An alternative ap-
proach is to examine the CSF for xantho-
chromia. However, CSF may be stained yellow
due to high protein or bilirubin. Examination of
the red blood cells under the microscope im-
mediately after the tap may be helpful. Fresh
red cells have the typical doughnut-shaped
morphology, whereas crenelated cells indicate
that they have been in the extravascular space
for some time. Similarly, if the CSF sample is
spun in a centrifuge until there are no red
blood cells in the supernatant, the fluid can
be tested for blood products with a urine dip-
stick. A positive test indicates breakdown of
red blood cells, which typically takes at least
6 hours to occur after a subarachnoid hemor-
rhage, and demonstrates that the blood was
there before the tap.
Electroencephalography and
Evoked Potentials
Electroencephalography (EEG) is useful as an
objective electrophysiologic assay of cortical
function in patients who do not respond to
normal sensory stimuli. A typical waking EEG
is dominated anteriorly by low-voltage beta
activity (faster than 13 Hz). During periods of
quiet wakefulness, the EEG may slow into the
alpha range (8 to 13 Hz) and the wave activity
may be more rhythmic and symmetric. As the
patient becomes more drowsy, higher voltage
theta rhythms (4 to 7 Hz) become dominant;
delta activity (1 to 3 Hz) predominates in pa-
tients who are deeply asleep or comatose. The
EEG provides a rough but fairly accurate es-
timate of the degree to which a patient who is
unresponsive may be simply uncooperative.
On the other hand, occasional patients with
coma due to brainstem injury show an alpha
EEG pattern. The alpha activity in such pa-
tients is usually more regular and less variable
than in an awake patient, and it is not inhibited
by opening the eyes.
163
It may be possible to
drive the EEG by photic stimulation in alpha
coma. Certain types of metabolic encephalop-
athy may also have characteristic EEG chan-
ges. For example, triphasic waves are often seen
in patients with hepatic encephalopathy, but
can be seen in other metabolic disorders that
cause coma.
163,164
The EEG is most helpful in diagnosing im-
pairment of consciousness due to non-
convulsive status epilepticus.
165
Such patients
may lack the usual behavioral signs of com-
plex partial seizures, such as lip smacking or
blinking, and may present as merely confused,
drowsy, or even stuporous or comatose. Some
patients may demonstrate twitching move-
ments of the eyelids or extremities, but others
give no external sign of epileptic activity. In
one series, 8% of comatose patients were found
to be suffering from nonconvulsive status epi-
lepticus.
166
When the EEG shows continuous
epileptic activity, the diagnosis is easy and an-
ticonvulsants are required. However, noncon-
vulsive status epilepticus may occur in patients
without characteristic EEG changes,
167
prob-
ably because the seizure activity is mainly in
areas such as the medial temporal lobes that
are not sampled by the surface electrodes. Ac-
cordingly, if one suspects that the patient’s loss
of consciousness is a result of nonconvulsive
status epilepticus, it is probably wise to admin-
ister a short-acting benzodiazepine and observe
the patient’s response. If the patient improves,
antiepileptic drugs should be administered. Un-
fortunately, some patients with a clinical and
electroencephalographic diagnosis of noncon-
vulsive status epilepticus do not respond to an-
ticonvulsant drugs, because the underlying pro-
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