PINEAL TUMORS
The pineal gland is technically outside the brain,
sitting in the subdural space overlying the pre-
tectal area and rostral midbrain. Tumors of the
pineal gland commonly compress the dorsal sur-
face of the midbrain, causing Parinaud’s syn-
drome (loss of upward gaze, large poorly reactive
pupils, and retractory convergence nystagmus),
which points to the diagnosis. The tumor may
also compress the cerebral aqueduct, causing hy-
drocephalus; typically this only alters conscious-
ness when increased intracranial pressure from
hydrocephalus causes plateau waves (see page
93) or if there is sudden hemorrhage into the
pineal tumor (pineal apoplexy).
55
CT or MRI will
demonstrate both the tumor and the hydroceph-
alus and can detect hemorrhage into the tumor.
SUBARACHNOID LESIONS
Like epidural, dural, and subdural lesions,
subarachnoid lesions are outside of the brain
itself. Unlike epidural or dural lesions, alter-
ations of consciousness resulting from sub-
arachnoid lesions are not usually the result of
a mass effect, but occur when hemorrhage,
tumor, or infection either compress, infiltrate,
or cause inflammation of blood vessels in the
subarachnoid space that supply the brain, or
alter CSF absorptive pathways, thus causing hy-
drocephalus. Thus, strictly speaking, in some
cases the damage done by these lesions may be
more ‘‘metabolic’’ than structural. On the other
hand, subarachnoid hemorrhage and bacterial
meningitis are among the most acute emergen-
cies encountered in evaluating comatose pa-
tients, and for that reason this class of disorders
is considered here.
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Subarachnoid hemorrhage, in which there is
little if any intraparenchymal component, is
usually due to a rupture of a saccular aneurysm,
although it can also occur when a superficial
arteriovenous malformation ruptures. Saccular
aneurysms occur throughout life, generally at
branch points of large cerebral arteries, such as
the origin of the anterior communicating ar-
tery from the anterior cerebral artery; the ori-
gin of the posterior communicating artery from
the posterior cerebral artery; the origin of the
posterior cerebral artery from the basilar ar-
tery; or the origin of the middle cerebral artery
from the internal carotid artery. Microscopic
examination discloses an incomplete elastic me-
dia, which results in an aneurysmal dilation that
may enlarge with time. Aneurysms are found
with increasing frequency with age.
Aneurysms are typically silent until they
hemorrhage. Some ruptures are presaged by
a severe headache, a so-called sentinel head-
ache,
56,57
presumably resulting from sudden
dilation or leakage of blood from the aneurysm.
The frequency of sentinel headaches varies in
different series from 0% to 40%. Giant aneu-
rysms of the internal carotid artery sometimes
occur in the region of the cavernous sinus, and
these may present as a mass lesion causing
impairment of the cranial nerves of the cav-
ernous sinus (III, IV, VI, and V
1
) or by com-
pressing the frontal lobes. Occasionally an an-
eurysm of the posterior communicating artery
compresses the adjacent third nerve causing
ipsilateral pupillary dilation. For this reason,
new onset of anisocoria even in an awake pa-
tient is considered a medical emergency until
the possibility of a posterior communicating ar-
tery aneurysm is eliminated.
Unfortunately, most aneurysms are not ap-
parent until they bleed. The classic presentation
of a subarachnoid hemorrhage is the sudden
onset of the worst headache of the patient’s life.
However, many other types of headaches may
present in this way (e.g., ‘‘thunderclap head-
ache’’),
58
so it is often necessary to rule out
subarachnoid hemorrhage in the emergency
department. If the hemorrhage is sufficiently
large, the sudden pressure wave, as intracranial
pressure approximates arterial pressure, may
result in impaired cerebral blood flow and loss
of consciousness. About 12% of patients with
subarachnoid hemorrhage die before reaching
medical care.
59
At the other end of the spec-
trum, if the leak is small or seals rapidly, there
may be little in the way of neurologic signs. The
most important finding is impairment of con-
sciousness. The symptoms may vary from mild
dullness to confusion to stupor or coma. The
cause of the behavioral impairment after sub-
arachnoid hemorrhage is not well understood.
It is believed that the blood excites an inflam-
matory response with cytokine expression that
may diffusely impair brain metabolism as well
as cause brain edema. Parenchymal signs are
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
129
often lacking unless a jet of blood from the rup-
tured aneurysm has damaged the brain.
Patient 4–2
An 18-year-old woman was brought to the emer-
gency department by her sister because she had
been confused and forgetful for 2 days. She did not
offer a history of headache, but upon being asked,
the patient did admit that she had one. On ex-
amination the neck was stiff, but the neurologic
examination showed only lethargy and inatten-
tion. A CT scan disclosed a subarachnoid hemor-
rhage, with blood collection around the circle of
Willis on the right side. Lumbar puncture yielded
bloody fluid, with 23,000 red blood cells and 500
white blood cells. Cultures were negative. A ce-
rebral angiogram demonstrated a saccular aneu-
rysm at the junction of the internal carotid and
middle cerebral arteries on the right.
CT scans are highly sensitive to subarach-
noid blood, making the diagnosis in more than
95% of cases if done within 12 hours
60
(Figure
4–4). MRI fluid-attenuated inversion recovery
(FLAIR) sequences may be more sensitive,
61,62
but in a patient with a suspected subarachnoid
hemorrhage if the CT is negative, a lumbar
puncture is mandatory.
57,62,63
As lumbar punc-
ture itself may introduce blood into the CSF,
the analysis of blood in the CSF is of great
importance. Signs that suggest that the blood
was present before the tap include the persis-
tence of the same number of red cells in tubes
1 and 4, or the presence of crenated red blood
cells and/or xanthochromia if the hemorrhage
is at least several hours old. Spectrophotome-
try of CSF is available in some institutions.
64
Another alternative is to centrifuge the CSF
and test the supernate with a urine dipstick
for blood. If the bleeding preceded the tap by
at least 6 hours, it is likely that there will be
blood breakdown products in the CSF, which
can be visualized on the dipstick.
Figure 4–4. A 66-year-old man was brought to the Emergency Department after sudden onset of a severe global headache
with nausea and vomiting. His legs collapsed under him. CT scan (A) showed blood in the cisterns surrounding the circle of
Willis at the base of the brain, with blood extending into the interhemispheric fissure at the midline, and the right Sylvian
fissure (arrow). A CT angiogram (B) showed that the anterior cerebral arteries were fused from the anterior communicating
artery up to a bifurcation point, at which a large saccular aneurysm was noted (arrow). ACA, anterior cerebral artery; LVA,
left vertebral artery; RMCA, right middle cerebral artery.
130
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Even in those patients who are not comatose
on admission, alterations of consciousness may
develop in the ensuing days. Deterioration may
occur due to rebleeding, which is particularly
common in the first 24 to 48 hours. About 3 to 7
days after the hemorrhage, cerebral vasospasm
may occur.
65
Vasospasm typically develops first
and is most intense in the area of the greatest
amount of extracerebral clot. This delayed ce-
rebral ischemia may result in brain infarction
and further edema, thus exacerbating the im-
pairment of consciousness. Acutely develop-
ing hydrocephalus
66
from obstruction of spinal
fluid pathways may also impair consciousness.
The patient should be observed carefully for
these complications and appropriate treatment
applied.
65,66
Subarachnoid Tumors
Both benign and malignant tumors may invade
the subarachnoid space, infiltrating the lepto-
meninges either diffusely or focally and some-
times invading roots, or growing down the
Virchow-Robin spaces to invade the brain.
Leptomeningeal tumors include lymphomas
and leukemias and solid tumors such as breast,
renal cell, and lung cancers, as well as medul-
loblastomas and glial tumors.
67–69
The hallmark
of meningeal neoplasms is multilevel dysfunc-
tion of the nervous system, including signs of
damage to cranial or spinal nerves, spinal cord,
brainstem, or cerebral hemispheres. Many pa-
tients with meningeal carcinoma have impair-
ment of consciousness that is difficult to ex-
plain on the basis of the distribution of the
tumor cells. The cause of the depressed level
of consciousness in these patients is not clear.
Explanations have included hydrocephalus
from obstruction of spinal fluid pathways,
70,71
invasion of the brain along the Virchow-Robin
spaces of penetrating pial vessels (the so-called
encephalitic form of metastatic carcinoma),
72
nonconvulsive status epilepticus,
73
interference
by the tumor with cortical metabolism,
74,75
or
an immunologic response to the tumor
76
with
production of cytokines and prostaglandins;
most patients also have some white blood cells
in their CSF as well as tumor cells.
The diagnosis of subarachnoid tumor is chal-
lenging, particularly when the multilevel dys-
functions of the nervous system are the first
signs of the tumor. The MRI scan may show
tumor implants in the leptomeninges or on the
surface of the brain, or it may demonstrate
thickening of cranial nerve or spinal roots (Fig-
ure 4–5). If the scan is negative, the diagnosis
is established by the presence of tumor cells
77
or tumor markers
78
in the spinal fluid. How-
ever, the clinician must think of the diagnosis
to perform these tests. Fortunately, there are
nearly always other abnormalities in the CSF
(lymphocytes, low glucose, elevated protein),
which may lead to repeat examination if the
first cytology is negative, as CSF cytology has
a low degree of sensitivity. Wasserstrom and
colleagues found that in patients with patholog-
ically demonstrated meningeal carcinoma or
lymphoma, only 40% of the first CSF samples
contained malignant cells.
79
Although the diagnosis of meningeal cancer
generally indicates a poor prognosis, there are
occasional patients with leukemia, lymphoma,
or breast cancer in whom vigorous treatment of
the meningeal tumor may result in marked im-
provement or even complete remission. Treat-
ment usually includes high-dose intravenous
80
or intraventricular chemotherapy, as well as ir-
radiation of areas of focal central nervous sys-
tem (CNS) dysfunction (but not the entire
neuraxis).
81
Subarachnoid Infection
Subarachnoid infection (i.e., meningitis) is a
common cause of impaired consciousness.
Meningitis can be either acute or chronic and
can be caused by a variety of different organ-
isms including bacteria, fungi, rickettsiae, and
viruses. Neurologic signs and symptoms caused
by meningitis vary depending on the acuity of
the infection and the nature of the infecting
organisms, but certain aspects are common to
all. For organisms to cause meningitis, they
must first invade the meninges. This is usually
done via the bloodstream, and for this reason
blood cultures will often identify the organism.
Less commonly, meningitis is a result of spread
of organisms from structures adjacent to the
brain (sinusitis, otitis). Meningitis can also occur
in the absence of sepsis if there is communi-
cation between the meninges and the surface
(CSF fistula, head injury, neurosurgery). Once
in the meninges, organisms multiply, inducing
the macrophage system that lines the menin-
ges and superficial blood vessels in the brain
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
131
to produce a variety of cytokines and other
proinflammatory molecules that in turn attract
other white cells to the meninges. The inflam-
matory reaction can disrupt the blood-brain
barrier; obstruct spinal fluid absorptive path-
ways, causing hydrocephalus and cellular swell-
ing; or cause a vasculitis of subarachnoid or
penetrating cortical blood vessels with result-
ing cerebral ischemia or infarction. Inflamma-
tory reactions also cause metabolic disturbances
that lower the pH, promoting vasodilation and
increasing cerebral blood volume, leading to
increased ICP.
82
Thus, although the infection
itself does not cause a supratentorial mass, the
combination of vasogenic and cytotoxic edema
caused by the inflammatory response may pro-
duce enough diffuse mass effect to cause her-
niation. Both transtentorial and tonsillar herni-
ation may occur, although both are rare.
The major causes of community-acquired
bacterial meningitis include Streptococcus
pneumoniae (51%) and Neisseria meninigitis
(37%).
83
In immunocompromised patients,
Listeria monocytogenes meningitis accounts for
about 4% of cases.
84–86
Listeria meningitis may
be noticeably slower in its course but has a
tendency to cause brainstem abscesses. Staph-
ylococcus aureus and, since a vaccine became
available, Haemophilus influenzae are uncom-
mon causes of community-acquired men-
ingitis.
83
Acute bacterial meningitis is a medical emer-
gency, as treated patients can die within hours
of onset. Viral meningitis may clinically mimic
bacterial meningitis, but in most cases are self-
limiting. The clinical signs of acute bacterial
meningitis are headache, fever, stiff neck, pho-
tophobia, and an alteration of mental status.
Focal neurologic signs can occur either from
ischemia of underlying brain or from damage
to cranial nerves as they pass through the sub-
arachnoid space. In a series of adults with
acute bacterial meningitis,
87
97% of patients
had fever, 87% nuchal rigidity, and 84% head-
ache. Nausea or vomiting was present in 55%,
confusion in 56%, and a decreased level of
consciousness in 51%. Papilledema was iden-
tified in only 2% of patients, although it was
not tested in almost half. Seizure activity oc-
curred in 25% of patients, but was always within
24 hours of the clinical diagnosis of acute
meningitis. Over 40% of the patients had been
partially treated before the diagnosis was es-
tablished, so that in 30% of patients neither
Gram stain nor cultures were positive. Eigh-
teen percent of the patients died (Table 4–3).
Figure 4–5. A pair of images from a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan with contrast in a patient with meningeal
lymphoma. This 52-year-old man presented with bilateral visual distortion and some left leg weakness. Both chronic lym-
phocytic leukemia and a non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma had recently been diagnosed. The MRI scan showed superficial en-
hancement outlining the cortical sulci (arrows).
132
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
In a series of 62 adults with community-
acquired acute bacterial meningitis admitted to
an intensive care unit, 95% had impaired con-
sciousness.
However, the classic triad of fever, nuchal
rigidity, and alteration of mental status was
present in only 44% of patients in a large series
ofcommunity-acquiredmeningitis.
83
Focalneu-
rologic signs were present in one-third and in-
cluded cranial nerve palsies, aphasia, and hemi-
paresis; papilledema was found in only 3%.
Subacute or chronic meningitis runs an in-
dolent course and may be accompanied by the
same symptoms, but also may occur in the
absence of fever in debilitated or immune-
suppressed patients. Both acute and chronic
meningitis may be characterized only by leth-
argy, stupor, or coma in the absence of the
other common signs. Chronic meningitis (e.g.,
with tuberculosis or cryptococcus) can also
cause a local arteritis, resulting in cranial nerve
dysfunction and focal areas of CNS infarc-
tion.
88
Aspergillus meningitis, which is typically
seen only in patients who have been immune
suppressed, causes a hemorrhagic arteritis,
which may produce a combination of focal
findings and impaired consciousness. How-
ever, the impairment of consciousness in each
of these cases is primarily due to the immuno-
logic processes concerned with the infection
rather than structural causes (see Chapter 5).
The examination should include careful
evaluation of nuchal rigidity even in patients
who are stuporous. Attempting to flex the neck
in a patient with meningitis may lead to gri-
macing and a rapid flexion of knees and hips
(Brudzinski sign). Lateral movement of the
neck, such as in eliciting the doll’s head/eye
signs, is not resisted. If one flexes the thigh to
the right angle with the axis of the trunk, the
patient grimaces and resists extension of the
leg on the thigh (Kernig sign). Pain with jolt
accentuation (the patient turns the head hor-
izontally at two to three cycles per second) is a
very sensitive sign of meningismus (positive in
97% of patients with meningitis) if the patient
is sufficiently awake to cooperate, but is non-
specific (positive in 40% of patients with sus-
pected meningitis, but no pleocytosis in the
CSF).
89
Examination of the nose and ears for
CSF discharge, and of the back for a CSF-
to-skin sinus tract, may aid in the diagnosis.
CSF can be distinguished from other clear fluid
discharges at the bedside by its containing glu-
cose. Measurement of beta-trace protein in the
blood and discharge fluid is more accurate.
90
Meningitis, particularly in children, can cause
acute brain edema with transtentorial hernia-
tion as the initial sign. Clinically, such children
rapidly lose consciousness and develop hyper-
pnea disproportionate to the degree of fever.
The pupils dilate, at first moderately and then
widely, then fix, and the child develops decer-
ebrate motor signs. Urea, mannitol, or other hy-
perosmotic agents, if used properly, can prevent
or reverse the full development of the ominous
changes that are otherwise rapidly fatal.
In elderly patients, bacterial meningitis
sometimes presents as insidiously developing
stupor or coma in which there may be focal
neurologic signs but little evidence of severe
systemic illness or stiff neck. In one series, 50%
of such patients with meningitis were admitted
to the hospital with another and incorrect di-
agnosis.
91,92
Such patients can be regarded in-
correctly as having suffered a stroke, but this
error is readily avoided by accurate spinal
fluid examinations.
If meningitis is suspected, a lumbar punc-
ture is essential. Whether it should be per-
formed before or after a CT scan is contro-
versial.
33,93,94
Some observers believe that the
diagnostic value warrants the small but definite
risk. Many physicians believe that a CT scan
cannot determine the safety of a lumbar punc-
ture. Many patients with either supratento-
rial or infratentorial mass lesions tolerate lum-
bar puncture without complication; conversely,
some patients with apparently normal CT may
Table 4–3 Clinical Findings in
103 Patients With Acute Bacterial
Meningitis
Symptom
%
Fever
97*
Nuchal rigidity
87
Headache
66
Nausea/vomiting
55
Confusion
56
Altered consciousness
51
Seizures
25
Focal signs
23
Papilledema
2
*Not all patients were examined for each finding.
Data from Hussein and Shafran.
87
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
133
herniate. Most who want to perform CT first
argue that when there is a strong suspicion of
acute bacterial meningitis, one can begin an-
tibiotics before the CT scan if the tap is done
promptly after an emergent CT; Gram stain
and cultures may still be positive. They further
argue that the presence of a mass lesion sug-
gests that the neurologic signs are not a result
of meningitis alone and that lumbar puncture is
probably unnecessary. Finally, even in the ab-
sence of a mass lesion, obliteration of the peri-
mesencephalic cisterns or descent of the ton-
sils below the foramen magnum is a major risk
factor for the development of herniation after a
lumbar puncture. In such cases, lumbar punc-
ture should be deferred until hyperosmolar
agents (see Chapter 7) decrease the ICP. Re-
gardless of which approach is taken, it is crit- Dostları ilə paylaş: |