ical for the diagnostic evaluation not to prevent
the immediate drawing of blood cultures, fol-
lowed by administration of appropriate anti-
biotics.
In acute bacterial meningitis, CSF pres-
sure at lumbar puncture is usually elevated. A
normal or low pressure raises the question of
whether there has already been partial herni-
ation of the cerebellar tonsils. The cell count
and protein are elevated, and glucose may be
depressed or normal. Examination for bacte-
rial antigens sometimes is diagnostic in the ab-
sence of a positive culture. Examination of the
spinal fluid helps one differentiate acute bac-
terial meningitis from acute aseptic meningi-
tis (Table 4–4). Because S. pneumoniae and
N. meningitidis are the most common causal
organisms, empiric therapy in adults should
include either ceftriaxone (4 g/day in divided
doses every 12 hours), cefotaxime (up to 8 to
12 g/day in divided doses every 4 to 6 hours),
or cefepime (4 to 6 g/day in divided doses
every 8 to 12 hours); vancomycin should be
added until the results of antimicrobial sus-
ceptibility testing are known. In elderly pa-
tients and those who are immune suppressed,
L. monocytogenes and H. influenzae play a
role, and ampicillin should be added to those
drugs. Meropenem may turn out to be an at-
tractive candidate for monotherapy in elderly
patients. In a setting where Rocky Mountain
spotted fever or ehrlichiosis are possible in-
fectious organisms, the addition of doxycycline
is prudent.
Whether corticosteroids should be used is
controversial. Adjuvant dexamethasone is re-
commended for children and adults with hae-
mophilus meningitis or pneumococcal menin-
gitis but is not currently recommended for
the treatment of Gram-negative meningitis.
Table 4–4 Typical Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Findings in Bacterial Versus
Aseptic Meningitis
CSF Parameter
Bacterial Meningitis
Aseptic Meningitis
Opening pressure
>
180 mm H
2
O
Normal or slightly elevated
Glucose
<
40 mg/dL
<
45 mg/dL
CSF-to-serum glucose ratio
<
0.31
>
0.6
Protein
>
50 mg/dL
Normal or elevated
White blood cells
>
10 to <10,000/mm
3
—neutrophils
predominate
50–2,000/mm
3
—lymphocytes
predominate
Gram stain
Positive in 70%–90% of untreated
cases
Negative
Lactate
!3.8 mmol/L
Normal
C-reactive protein
>
100 ng/mL
Minimal
Limulus lysate assay
Positive indicates Gram-negative
meningitis
Negative
Latex agglutination
Specific for antigens of Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis
(not serogroup B), and Hib
Negative
Coagglutination
Same as above
Negative
Counterimmunoelectrophoresis
Same as above
Negative
From Roos et al.,
95
with permission
134
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Nevertheless, if prompt antibiotic therapy is be-
gun and the patient shows any signs of increased
ICP, it is probably wise to use dexamethasone.
96
CT scans may show pus in the subarachnoid
space as hypodense CSF with enlargement of
sulci, but in the absence of prior scans in the
same patient, this is often difficult to inter-
pret. Meningeal enhancement usually does not
occur until several days after the onset of in-
fection. Cortical infarction, which may be due
to inflammation and occlusion either of pene-
trating arteries or cortical veins, also tends to
occur late. The MRI scan is much more sen-
sitive for showing the changes indicated above
but may be entirely normal in patients with
acute meningitis (Table 4–5).
97
INTRACEREBRAL MASSES
Intracerebral masses by nature tend to include
both destructive and compressive elements.
However, in many cases, the damage from the
mass effect far exceeds the damage from dis-
ruption of local neurons and white matter.
Hence, we have included this class of lesions
with compressive processes.
Intracerebral Hemorrhage
Intracerebral hemorrhage may result from a
variety of pathologic processes that affect the
blood vessels. These include rupture of deep
Table 4–5 Imaging Findings in Acute Meningitis
Finding
CT*
MR*
Sensitivity
Sulcal dilation
Hypodense CSF;
enlargement of sulci
T1WI: Hypointense
CSF in sulci
MR>CT
T2WI: Hyperintense
CSF in sulci
Leptomeningeal
enhancement
CE: Increase in density
of subarachnoid space
T1WI, CE: Marked increase
in signal intensity
MR>CT
Ischemic cortical
infarction
Hypodense cortical mass
effect
T1WI: Hypointense cortex;
mass effect
MR>CT
secondary to
vasculitis
CE: Subacute increase
in density (enhancement)
T2WI: Hyperintense cortex,
mass effect
FLAIR: Hyperintense cortex,
mass effect
CE: Subacute enhancement;
hyperintense on T1WI
DWI: Bright (white)
ADC: Dark (black)
Subdural collections
Hypodense peripheral CSF
plus density collection
T1WI: Hypointense
peripheral collection
MR>CT
CE: Hygroma, no; empyema,
yes
T2WI: Hyperintense
peripheral collection
FLAIR: hygroma, hypointense;
empyema, variable
CE: Hygroma, no; empyema, yes
DWI: Hydroma, dark;
empyema, bright
ADC: Hygroma, bright;
empyema, dark
ADC, apparent diffusion coefficient map; CE, contrast enhanced; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; CT, computed tomography;
DWI, diffusion-weighted imaging; FLAIR, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery; MR, magnetic resonance; T1WI, T1-
weighted image; T2WI, T2-weighted image.
*Intensity relative to normal brain ±.
From Zimmerman et al.,
98
with permission.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
135
cerebral end arteries, trauma, rupture of an ar-
teriovenous malformation, rupture of a mycotic
aneurysm, amyloid angiopathy, or hemorrhage
into a tumor. Rupture of a saccular aneurysm
can also cause an intraparenchymal hematoma,
but the picture is generally dominated by the
presence of subarachnoid blood. In contrast,
despite their differing pathophysiology, the
signs and symptoms of primary intracerebral
hemorrhages are due to the compressive ef-
fects of the hematoma, and thus are more alike
than different, depending more on location
than on the underlying pathologic process.
Spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hem-
orrhages are therefore usually classified as lo-
bar or deep, with the latter sometimes extend-
ing intraventricularly.
Lobar hemorrhages can occur anywhere in
the cerebral hemispheres, and may involve one
or multiple lobes (Figure 4–6A). As compared
to deeper hemorrhages, patients with lobar
hemorrhages are older, less likely to be male,
and less likely to be hypertensive. Severe head-
ache is a characteristic of lobar hemorrhages.
Focal neurologic deficits occur in almost 90%
of patients and vary somewhat depending on
the site of the hemorrhage. About half the pa-
tients have a decreased level of conscious-
ness and 20% are in a coma when admitted.
99
Seizures are a common occurrence and may be
nonconvulsive (see page 281), so that electro-
encephalographic (EEG) evaluation is valuable
if there is impairment of consciousness.
Deep hemorrhages in the supratentorial re-
gion include those into the basal ganglia, inter-
nal capsule, and thalamus. Hemorrhages into
the pons and cerebellum are discussed in the
section on infratentorial hemorrhages. Chung
and colleagues divided patients with striato-
capsular hemorrhages into six groups with vary-
ing clinical findings and prognoses.
100
These
included posterolateral (33%), affecting pri-
marily the posterior portion of the putamen;
massive (24%), involving the entire striatal
capsular region but occasionally sparing the
caudate nucleus and the anterior rim of the
internal capsule; lateral (21%), located be-
tween the external capsule and insular cortex;
anterior (11%), involving the caudate nucleus;
middle (7%), involving the globus pallidus in
the middle portion of the medial putamen; and
posterior medial (4%), localized to the anterior
half of the posterior rim of the internal cap-
sule. Consciousness was only rarely impaired
in anterior and posterior medial lesions, but
was impaired in about one-third of patients
Figure 4–6. Computed tomography scans from two patients with intracerebral hemorrhages. (A) shows a large hemor-
rhage into the right parieto-occipital lobe in a 77-year-old woman who was previously healthy and presented with difficulty
walking and a headache. Examination showed left-sided neglect. She took 325 mg aspirin at home on the advice of her
primary care doctor because she suspected a stroke. The hematoma ruptured into the lateral ventricle. (B) shows a right
thalamocapsular hemorrhage in a 60-year-old man with a history of hypertension who was not being treated at the time of
the hemorrhage. He presented with headache, left-sided weakness and sensory loss, and some left-sided inattention.
136
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
with middle lesions. About half the patients
with posterolateral lesions were drowsy, but
not comatose, as were about one-half the pa-
tients with the lateral lesions who rarely be-
come comatose. However, massive lesions usu-
ally cause severe impairment of consciousness
including coma. Hemiparesis is common in
posterolateral and massive lesions. Sensory def-
icits are relatively frequent in posterior and
medial lesions. Prognosis is fair to good in pa-
tients with all of the lesions save the massive
ones, where the fatality rate is about 50%. Eye
deviation occurs usually toward the lesion site,
but may be ‘‘wrong way’’ in those with pos-
terolateral and massive lesions.
Thalamic hemorrhages can be categorized
by size (smaller or larger than 2 cm in diame-
ter) and by location (posterolateral, anterolat-
eral, medial, and dorsal; Figure 4–6B). About
one-fifth of patients with thalamic hemorrhages
are stuporous or comatose at presentation.
101
The loss of consciousness is usually accompa-
nied by ocular signs including skew deviation
(the lower eye on the side of the lesion); gaze
preference, which may either be toward or
away (wrong-way eyes) from the side of the
lesion; loss of vertical gaze; and miotic pupils.
‘‘Peering at the tip of the nose’’ is an almost
pathognomonic sign.
102
Sensory and motor
disturbances depend on the site and size of the
lesion. About 25% of patients die,
101
and the
outcome is related to the initial consciousness,
nuchal rigidity, size of the hemorrhage, and
whether the hemorrhage dissects into the lat-
eral ventricle or causes hydrocephalus.
101
Intraventricular hemorrhages may be either
primary or result from extension of an intra-
cerebral hemorrhage. Intraventricular hemor-
rhages were once thought to be uniformly fatal,
but since the advent of CT scanning, have been
shown to run the gamut of symptoms from
simple headache to coma and death.
103
Pri-
mary intraventricular hemorrhages can result
from vascular anomalies within the ventricle,
surgical procedures, or bleeding abnormali-
ties.
104
Clinical findings include sudden onset
of headache and vomiting sometimes followed
by collapse and coma. If the hemorrhage finds
its way into the subarachnoid space, nuchal
rigidity occurs. The clinical findings of second-
ary intraventricular hemorrhage depend on
the initial site of bleeding. Hemorrhage into
the ventricle from a primary intracerebral hem-
orrhage worsens the prognosis.
The treatment of intraventricular hemor-
rhage is aimed at controlling intracranial pres-
sure. Ventricular drainage may help, but the
catheter often becomes occluded by the blood.
Injection of fibrinolytic agents (such as t-PA)
has been recommended by some.
104
The treatment of an intracerebral hemor-
rhage is controversial. Early surgery to evacu-
ate the hematoma has not been associated with
better outcome.
105
However, treatment with
hemostatic drugs, such as recombinant factor
VIIa, which limit hematoma size, are associ-
ated with improved outcomes.
106
Most patients
who have relatively small lesions and do not
die make good recoveries; those with mas-
sive lesions typically either die or are left devas-
tated. Herniation should be treated vigorously
in patients with relatively small hematomas be-
cause of the potential for good recovery.
Despite these similarities, the clinical setting
in which one sees patients with intracerebral
hemorrhage depends on the pathologic process
involved. These include rupture of a deep ce-
rebral endartery, amyloid angiopathy, mycotic
aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, or hem-
orrhage into a tumor, and each requires a dif-
ferent clinical approach.
Box 4–1 summarizes the major points that
differentiate clinically between acute cerebral
vascular lesions potentially causing stupor or
coma.
Rupture of deep cerebral end arteries usu-
ally occurs in patients with long-term, poorly
treated hypertension; it can also complicate di-
abetes or other forms of atherosclerotic arter-
iopathy. The blood vessels that are most likely
to hemorrhage are the same ones that cause
lacunar strokes (i.e., end arteries that arise at a
right angle from a major cerebral artery): the
striatocapsular arteries, which give rise to cap-
sular and basal ganglionic bleeds; the thalamic
perforating arteries, which give rise to thalamic
hemorrhages; the midline perforating arteries
of the pons, which give rise to pontine hemor-
rhages; and the penetrating branches of the
cerebellar long circumferential arteries, which
cause cerebellar hemorrhages. We will deal
with the first two, which cause supratentorial
masses, in this section, and the latter two in the
section on infratentorial masses.
The focal neurologic findings in each case
are characteristic of the part of the brain that
is injured. Capsular or basal ganglionic hemor-
rhages typically present with the acute onset of
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
137
Box 4–1 Typical Clinical Profiles of Acute Cerebrovascular
Lesions Affecting Consciousness
Acute massive cerebral infarction with or without hypotension
Distribution: Internal carotid-proximal middle cerebral artery or middle cerebral
plus anterior cerebral arteries. Onset during wakefulness or sleep. Massive hemi-
plegia with aphasia, hemisensory defect. Obtundation from the start or within
hours, progressing to stupor in 12 to 24 hours, coma usually in 36 to 96 hours.
Convulsions rare. Pupils small and reactive, or constricted ipsilateral to lesion
(Horner’s), or moderately dilated ipsilateral to lesion (III nerve). Conjugate gaze
paresis to side of motor weakness; contralateral oculovestibulars can be sup-
pressed for 12 hours or so. Contralateral hemiplegia, usually with extensor plantar
response and paratonia ipsilateral to lesion. Cheyne-Stokes breathing 10% to 20%.
Signs of progressive rostral caudal deterioration begin in 12 to 24 hours. Spinal
fluid usually unremarkable or with mildly elevated pressure and cells.
Frontoparietal hemorrhage
Onset during wakefulness. Sudden-onset headache, followed by more or less rap-
idly evolving aphasia, hemiparesis to hemiplegia, conjugate ocular deviation away
from hemiparesis. Convulsions at onset in approximately one-fifth. Pupils small and
reactive, or ipsilateral Horner’s with excessive contralateral sweating, or stupor to
coma and bilateral motor signs within hours of onset. Bloody spinal fluid.
Thalamic hemorrhage
Hypertensive, onset during wakefulness. Clinical picture similar to frontoparietal
hemorrhage but seizures rare, vomiting frequent, eyes characteristically deviated
down and laterally to either side. Pupils small and reactive. Conscious state ranges
from awake to coma. Bloody spinal fluid.
Bilateral thalamic infarction in the paramedian regions
Sudden onset of coma, akinetic mutism, hypersomnolence or altered mental status
may accompany bland infarcts of the paramedian thalamus arising bilaterally as a
result of a ‘‘top of the basilar’’ syndrome or a branch occlusion of a thalamope-
duncular artery (Percheron’s artery) providing vascular supply to both thalami and
often the tegmental mesencephalon.
Pontine hemorrhage
Hypertensive. Sudden onset of coma or speechlessness, pinpoint pupils, ophthal-
moplegia with absent or impaired oculovestibular responses, quadriplegia, irreg-
ular breathing, hyperthermia. Bloody spinal fluid.
Cerebellar hemorrhage
Hypertensive and awake at onset. Acute and rapid onset and worsening within
hours of occipital headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness or vertigo, unstead-
iness, dysarthria, and drowsiness. Small and reactive pupils, nystagmus or hori-
zontal gaze paralysis toward the side of the lesion. Midline and ipsilateral ataxia,
(continued)
138
hemiplegia. Thalamic hemorrhage may pres-
ent with sensory phenomena, but often the
hemorrhage compresses ascending arousal
systems early so that loss of consciousness is
the primary presentation.
101
When the hem-
orrhage is into the caudal part of the thalamus,
such as the putamen, which overlies the pos-
terior commissure, the initial signs may be due
to dorsal midbrain compression or injury
102
(see page 110), with some combination of forced
downgaze and convergence (‘‘peering at the
tip of the nose’’), fixed pupils, and retractory
nystagmus. Another neuro-ophthalmologic pre-
sentation of thalamic hemorrhage was descri-
bed by Miller Fisher as ‘‘wrong-way eyes.’’
107
Whereas frontal lobe insults usually result in
deviation of the eyes toward the side of the le-
sion (i.e., paresis of gaze to the opposite side
of space), after thalamic hemorrhage (or occa-
sionally deep intraparenchymal hemorrhage
that damages the same pathways
108
) there may
be a paresis of gaze toward the side of the lesion
(see Chapter 3).
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Hemorrhages of the end artery type are often
called hypertensive hemorrhages, although they
may occur in other clinical settings. The reason
for the predilection of this class of artery for
both occlusion (lacunar infarction) and hemor-
rhage is not known. Miller Fisher attempted to
identify the arteries that had caused lacunar
infarctions in postmortem examination of the
brain.
109
He found an eosinophilic degenera-
tion of the wall of small penetrating arteries in
the region of the infarct and proposed that this
‘‘lipohyalinosis’’ was the cause of the infarction.
However, this description was based on a small
number of samples and did not give any insight
into the nature of the pathologic process. Given
the fact that such vessels typically take off at
a right angle from large cerebral arteries, one
might expect high sheering forces at the vessel
origin, so that high blood pressure or other ath-
erosclerotic risk factors might cause earlier or
more severe damage. However, the mechanism
for this phenomenon remains unclear.
End artery hemorrhages typically produce a
large hematoma with considerable local tissue
destruction and edema. Because much of the
clinical appearance is due to the mass effect,
which eventually is resorbed, the patient may
initially to be much more neurologically im-
paired than would be caused by a comparably
sized infarct. However, if the patient can be
supported through the initial event, recovery
is often much greater than might be initially an-
ticipated, and the hematoma is resorbed, leav-
ing a slit-like defect in the brain.
Amyloid angiopathy results from deposition
of beta-amyloid peptide in the walls of cerebral
blood vessels.
110
These deposits disrupt the
arterial elastic media resulting in predisposi-
tion to bleeding. Because amyloid deposits
occur along blood vessels as they penetrate the
ipsilateral peripheral facial palsy, and contralateral extensor plantar response.
Occasionally, course may proceed for 1 to 2 weeks. Spinal fluid bloody.
Acute cerebellar infarction
Mostly hypertensive, mostly males. Onset at any time. Vertigo, ataxia, nausea, dull
headache, nystagmus, dysarthria, ipsilateral dysmetria; 24 to 96 hours later:
drowsiness, miosis, ipsilateral gaze paresis and facial paresis, worsening ataxia,
extensor plantar responses. Coma, quadriplegia, and death may follow if not
decompressed. Spinal fluid sometimes microscopically bloody.
Acute subarachnoid hemorrhage
Awake at onset, sometimes hypertensive, sudden headache, often followed within
minutes by unconsciousness. Pupils small or unilaterally dilated. Subhyaloid
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