take of norepinephrine as well as dopamine, has
convulsive, respiratory, and circulatory toxicity,
but it is not clear what part of this syndrome can
be attributed to norepinephrine.
135
SPECIFIC CAUSES OF
METABOLIC COMA
The diagnosis of specific causes of metabolic
coma is not always easy. The history often is
unobtainable and the neurologic examination
in many instances suggests only that the cause
of coma is metabolic without identifying the
specific etiology. Thus, laboratory examinations
are usually required to make a final diagnosis.
But when the patient is acutely and severely
ill and time is short, the major treatable causes
of acute metabolic coma (which are compara-
tively few) must be considered systematically.
In obscure cases, it is remarkable how often an
accurate clue is derived from careful observa-
tion of the respiratory pattern accompanied,
when indicated, by analysis of blood gases,
determination of blood sugar, and lumbar
puncture.
Because hypoglycemic coma is frequent,
dangerous, and often clinically obscure, one
should check a fingerstick glucose on any pa-
tient in whom the cause of delirium, stupor, or
coma is not immediately known. Because hy-
perglycemia can worsen the prognosis in pa-
tients with cerebral infarction or head trauma,
glucose should not be given unless the patient
is known to be hypoglycemic. In potentially
malnourished patients, thiamine should be
given along with glucose to minimize the risk
of acute Wernicke’s encephalopathy (see page
313).
136
Brain oxygen tension can be measured di-
rectly by inserting a sensor
137,138
into the brain
or indirectly by measuring cerebral venous ox-
ygen into the jugular bulb.
139
However, jugu-
lar venous oxygen tension gives no hint as to
oxygen tension in specific regions of the brain.
ISCHEMIA AND HYPOXIA
Hypoxia of the brain almost always arises as
part of a larger problem in oxygen supply, ei-
ther because the ambient pressure of the gas
falls or systemic abnormalities in the organism
interrupt its delivery to the tissues. Although
there are many causes of tissue hypoxia,
140
disturbances in oxygen supply to the brain in
most instances can be divided into hypoxic
hypoxia, anemic hypoxia, histotoxic hypoxia,
and ischemic hypoxia. Though caused by dif-
ferent conditions and diseases, all four cate-
gories share equally the potential for depriving
brain tissue of its critical oxygen supply. The
main differences between the hypoxic, anemic,
and ischemic forms are on the arterial side. All
three forms of anoxia share the common effect
210
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
of producing cerebral venous hypoxia, which,
save for oxygen sensors inserted into brain,
138
is the best guide in vivo to estimate the partial
pressure of the gas in the tissue.
141
However,
with histotoxic hypoxia, blood oxygen levels may
be normal.
In hypoxic hypoxia, insufficient oxygen
reaches the blood so that both the arterial ox-
ygen content and tension are low. This situa-
tion results either from a low oxygen tension
in the environment (e.g., high altitude or dis-
placement of oxygen by an inert gas such as
nitrogen
142
or methane) or from an inability of
oxygen to reach and cross the alveolar capillary
membrane (pulmonary disease, hypoventila-
tion). With mild or moderate hypoxia, the CBF
increases to maintain the cerebral oxygen de-
livery and no symptoms occur. However, clin-
ical evidence suggests that even in chronic
hypoxic conditions, the CBF can only increase
to about twice normal. When the increase is
insufficient to compensate for the degree of
hypoxia, the CMRO
2
begins to fall and symp-
toms of cerebral hypoxia occur. Because hyp-
oxic hypoxia affects the entire organism, all
energy-intensive tissues are affected, and even-
tually, if the oxygen delivery is sufficiently im-
paired, the myocardium fails, the blood pres-
sure drops, and the brain becomes ischemic.
Most of the pathologic changes in patients who
die after an episode of hypoxic hypoxia are
related to ischemia
114
; therefore, it is difficult
to define the actual damage done by hypoxic
hypoxia alone.
143
For example, glutamate re-
lease causing excitocytotoxicity occurs in vitro
with ischemia but not anoxia.
144
Loss of con-
sciousness due to hypoxic hypoxia before blood
pressure drops may be a result of enhanced
spontaneous transmitter release, which prob-
ably disrupts normal neural circuitry.
145
In anemic hypoxia, sufficient oxygen reaches
the blood, but the amount of hemoglobin
available to bind and transport it is decreased.
Under such circumstances, the blood oxygen
content is decreased even though oxygen ten-
sion in the arterial blood is normal. Either
low hemoglobin content (anemia) or chemical
changes in hemoglobin that interfere with ox-
ygen binding (e.g., carbon monoxyhemoglobin,
methemoglobin) can be responsible. Coma oc-
curs if the oxygen content drops so low that the
brain’s metabolic needs are not met even by an
increased CBF. The lowered blood viscosity
that occurs in anemia makes it somewhat easier
for the CBF to increase than in carbon monox-
ide poisoning. Most of the toxicity from carbon
monoxide poisoning is not due to hemoglobin
binding but is histotoxic, a result of its binding
to cytochromes.
146
In ischemic hypoxia, the blood may or may
not carry sufficient oxygen, but the CBF is
insufficient to supply cerebral tissues. The
usual causes are diseases that greatly reduce
the cardiac output, such as myocardial infarc-
tion, arrhythmia, shock, and vasovagal syncope,
or diseases that increase the cerebral vascular
resistance by arterial occlusion (e.g., stroke) or
spasm (e.g., migraine).
Histotoxic hypoxia results from agents that
poison the electron transport chain. Such agents
include cyanide and carbon monoxide. Carbon
monoxide intoxication is by far the most com-
mon; smoke from house fires can cause both
carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning (see
page 240). Because the electron transport
chain is impaired, glycolysis is increased lead-
ing to increased lactic acid; thus, high levels of
lactic acid (greater than 7 mmol/L) in the blood
are encountered in patients with severe cya-
nide poisoning. Some cyanide antidotes in-
crease methemoglobin, which may add to the
anemic hypoxic burden of patients who have
also been poisoned with carbon monoxide
147
;
hydroxycobalamine treatment does not help
under such conditions.
The development of neurologic signs in
most patients with ischemia or hypoxia de-
pends more on the severity and duration of the
process than on its specific cause. Ischemia
(vascular failure) is generally more dangerous
than hypoxia alone, in part because potentially
toxic products of cerebral metabolism such as
lactic acid are not removed. The clinical cate-
gories of hypoxic and ischemic brain damage
can be subdivided into acute, chronic, and
multifocal.
Acute, Diffuse (or Global)
Hypoxia or Ischemia
This circumstance occurs with conditions that
rapidly reduce the oxygen content of the blood
or cause a sudden reduction in the brain’s
overall blood flow. The major causes include
obstruction of the airways, such as occurs with
drowning, choking, or suffocation; massive
obstruction to the cerebral arteries, such as
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
211
occurs with hanging or strangulation; and con-
ditions causing a sudden decrease in cardiac
output, such as asystole, severe arrhythmias,
vasodepressor syncope, pulmonary embolism,
or massive systemic hemorrhage. Embolic or
thrombotic disorders, including thrombotic
thrombocytopenic purpura, disseminated in-
travascular coagulation, acute bacterial endo-
carditis, falciparum malaria, and fat embolism,
can all cause such widespread multifocal is-
chemia that they can give the clinical appear-
ance of acute diffuse cerebral ischemia. If
the cerebral circulation stops completely, con-
sciousness is lost rapidly, within 6 to 8 seconds.
It takes a few seconds longer if blood flow
continues but oxygen is no longer supplied.
Fleeting lightheadedness and blindness some-
times precede unconsciousness. Generalized
convulsions, pupillary dilation (due to massive
adrenal and sympathetic release of catechol-
amines as part of the emergency stress re-
sponse), and bilateral extensor plantar re-
sponses quickly follow if anoxia is complete or
lasts longer than a few seconds. If tissue oxy-
genation is restored immediately, conscious-
ness returns in seconds or minutes without
sequelae. If, however, the oxygen deprivation
lasts longer than 1 or 2 minutes, or if it is
superimposed upon pre-existing cerebral vas-
cular disease, then stupor, confusion, and signs
of motor dysfunction may persist for several
hours or even permanently. Under clinical cir-
cumstances, total ischemic anoxia lasting lon-
ger than 4 minutes starts to kill brain cells, with
the neurons of the cerebral cortex (especially
the hippocampus) and cerebellum (the Pur-
kinje cells) dying first. In humans, severe dif-
fuse ischemic anoxia lasting 10 minutes or more
begins to destroy the brain. In rare instances,
particularly drowning, in which cold water
rapidly lowers brain temperature, recovery of
brain function has been noted despite more
prolonged periods of anoxia, although such
instances are more common in children than
adults. Thus, resuscitation efforts after drown-
ing (particularly in children) should not be
abandoned just because the patient has been
immersed for more than 10 minutes.
As noted above, much experimental evi-
dence indicates that the initial mechanism of
anoxia’s rapidly lethal effect on the brain may,
to some degree, lie in the inability of the heart
and the cerebral vascular bed to recover from
severe ischemia or oxygen deprivation. It has
been reported that if one makes meticulous
efforts to maintain the circulation, the brains
of experimental animals can recover from as
long as 30 minutes of very severe hypoxemia
with arterial PO
2
tensions of 20 mm Hg or
less. Equally low arterial blood oxygen tensions
have been reported in conscious humans who
recovered without sequelae. These laboratory
findings suggest that guaranteeing the integrity
of the systemic circulation offers the strongest
chance of effectively treating or preventing
hypoxic brain damage. Interestingly, previous
episodes of hypoxia may protect against is-
chemic brain injury by inducing hypoxia in-
ducible factor (HIF-1) that in turn induces
vascular endothelial growth factor, erythropoi-
etin, glucose transporters, glycolytic enzymes,
heat shock proteins, and other genes that may
protect against ischemia.
119
Vigorous and prolonged attempts at cardiac
resuscitation are justified, particularly in young
and previously healthy individuals in whom
recovery of cardiac function is more likely to
occur.
Acute, short-lived hypoxic-ischemic attacks
causing unconsciousness are most often the
result of transient global ischemia caused by
syncope (Table 5–8). Much less frequently,
transient attacks of vertebrobasilar ischemia
can cause unconsciousness. Such attacks may
be accompanied by brief seizures, which of-
ten present problems in differential diagno-
sis as seizures themselves cause loss of con-
sciousness.
Syncope or fainting results when cerebral
perfusion falls below the level required to sup-
ply sufficient oxygen and substrate to maintain
tissue metabolism. If the CBF falls below about
20 mL/100 g/minute, there is a rapid failure of
cerebral function. Syncope has many causes,
the most frequent being listed in Table 5–8.
Among young persons, most syncope results
from dysfunction of autonomic reflexes pro-
ducing vasodepressor hypotension, so-called
neurocardiogenic, vasovagal, or reflex syn-
cope.
148
These events are typically driven by a
beta-adrenergic vasodilation in response to in-
creased blood norepinephrine, often during an
episode of pain involving tissue invasion (e.g.,
having blood drawn) or even witnessing such
an event in another person. Vasodepressor re-
sponses remain the predominant cause of syn-
cope in older persons as well, but with ad-
vancing age, syncopal attacks are more likely to
212
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
occur as a result of cardiac arrhythmia or hy-
peractive baroreceptor reflexes due to periph-
eral, CNS, or cardiac disease.
Vasodepressor syncope is usually heralded
by a brief sensation of giddiness, weakness,
and sweating before consciousness is lost. This
is an important diagnostic point if present, but
about 30% of patients with true syncope may
be amnesic from the loss of consciousness and
thus report the episode as a ‘‘drop attack’’
149
(see below).
Reflex syncopal attacks almost always occur
when the victim is in the standing position,
rarely when sitting, and almost never when
prone or supine. Asystole, on the other hand,
characteristically produces unheralded, abrupt
unconsciousness regardless of position. If up-
right, the subject suddenly sinks or falls to the
ground. The brevity of the unconsciousness,
the rapid restoration of wakefulness when the
head is at position equal to or lower than the
heart, and the appearance of pallor prior to
and during the loss of consciousness differen-
tiate asystolic syncope from transient verte-
brobasilar insufficiency.
Drop attacks, defined as sudden collapse of
the legs in someone who is standing resulting
in a fall, generally occur in middle-aged
150
and
older adults.
151
Some are caused by syncope,
the patient having amnesia for the loss of con-
sciousness. Others are otologic in origin,
152
al-
though the patient is sometimes unaware of
vertigo. Occasionally drop attacks occur as a
result of bilateral ischemia of the base of the
pons or the medullary pyramids, or as a result
of transient, positional compression of the
upper cervical spinal cord due to atlantoaxial
subluxation or fracture of the dens.
153
In such
cases, there is no loss of consciousness.
Vertebrobasilar transient ischemic attacks
produce short-lived neurologic episodes char-
acterized by symptoms of neurologic dys-
function arising from subtentorial structures,
especially vertigo, nausea, and headache
154
(Table 5–9). As a result, vertebrobasilar ische-
mic attacks rarely cause isolated syncope. Brief
confusion or amnesic episodes sometimes oc-
cur, but stupor and coma are rare, perhaps
because ischemia sufficient to affect such a
large part of the brainstem bilaterally generally
causes additional signs of brainstem ischemia.
Basilar ischemia involving the descending
motor pathways in the basis pontis or the
medullary pyramids sometimes results in drop
attacks, which may superficially resemble asys-
tolic syncope. The absence of either uncon-
sciousness or the physical appearance of circu-
latory failure differentiates the condition from
true syncope.
Epileptic seizures may occasionally be diffi-
cult to distinguish from syncope as a cause of un-
consciousness. Tonic seizures and a few clonic
jerks are not rare in patients with syncopal
Table 5–8 Principal Causes of Brief
Episodic Unconsciousness*
1. SYNCOPE
Primarily vascular
A. Decreased peripheral resistance
1. Vasodepressor
a. Psychophysiologic
b. Reflex from visceral sensory stimulation
(deep pain, gastric distention,
postmicturition, etc.)
c. Carotid sinus syncope, type 2
(vasodepressor)
d. Cough syncope (impaired right
heart return)
2. Blood volume depletion
3. Neurogenic autonomic insufficiency
Primarily cardiac
A. Cardiodecelerator attacks
(transient sinus arrest)
a. Psychophysiologic
b. Visceral sensory stimulation (tracheal
stimulation, glossopharyngeal
neuralgia, swallow syncope, etc.)
c. Carotid sinus syncope, type 1
(cardiodecelerator)
B. Cardiac arrhythmia or asystole
C. Aortic stenosis
D. Carotid origin emboli in the presence of
severe vascular disease of other cervical
cranial arteries
2. AKINETIC OR ABSENCE SEIZURES
3. DROP ATTACKS
4. VERTEBROBASILAR TRANSIENT
ISCHEMIC ATTACKS
5. HYPOGLYCEMIA
6. CONVERSION REACTION
*In conditions 1 and 2, the altered consciousness is appa-
rent to the observer. Condition 3 often is so brief (especially
if the head falls below the level of the heart, resulting in
improved cerebral blood flow) that neither subject nor
observer can be sure whether full consciousness was re-
tained. In conditions 4 and 5, the patient may appear awake
and ‘‘conscious’’ to observers, but has no exact memory of
the episode and often recalls it simply as an unconscious
attack.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
213
attacks, but unless the patient is kept in an
upright position they are generally quite brief,
whereas grand mal epileptic attacks usually last
2 to 4 minutes and tend to recur independently
of body position. Some patients suffer from
akinetic seizures that can cause sudden loss of
consciousness without motor activity, resem-
bling cardiac syncope or drop attacks.
155–157
Other patients with subclinical or partial com-
plex seizures may suddenly enter a twilight
state in which there is loss of contact with the
outside world, but usually no loss of posture.
Pulmonary embolism presents as syncope in
about 10% of patients.
158
Seizures may also be
a presenting symptom of a pulmonary embo-
lus.
159
Focal signs without cerebral infarction
are occasionally present.
160
Factors causing
symptoms include cerebral ischemia, hypoxia,
and hypocapnia resulting from the fall in car-
diac output, blood oxygenation, compensatory
respiratory alkalosis that accompanies sudden
occlusion of a major pulmonary artery, or va-
sovagal reflex syncope.
158
An occasional pa-
tient suffers cerebral infarction as well, prob-
ably from a paradoxic embolus. A pulmonary
embolus raises right atrial pressure, opening a
potentially patent foramen ovale, thus allowing
a subsequent venous embolus to reach the
brain. One clue to the presence of a pulmonary
embolus in a patient who has suffered syncope
or is confused is the presence of unexpected
tachypnea or tachycardia in a patient recov-
ering from a syncopal episode or a seizure, as
Patient 5–7 illustrates.
Patient 5–7
A 39-year-old woman with a primary brain tumor
was doing well after radiation and chemotherapy
when, without warning, she had a generalized
convulsion. She was taken to the emergency de-
partment where she was slightly confused and
disoriented but otherwise had a nonfocal neuro-
logic examination. Her pulse was 120 and respi-
rations were 20. A CT scan of the brain revealed
no acute changes. The emergency department
physician called the treating neurologist, thinking
that the patient must have suffered a seizure as a
result of the brain tumor. The patient had had
seizures before, but the tachypnea and tachycar-
dia led the neurologist to suspect the possibility
of a pulmonary embolus. A CT of the chest was
performed, which revealed the pulmonary embo-
lus. The patient was anticoagulated and made a
full recovery.
Comment: The treating neurologist (not one of
us) was very astute in considering possibilities in
addition to the presence of a brain tumor as the
cause of seizures. There was no reason that the
patient, having recovered consciousness, would
be tachycardic and tachypneic, but because many
patients with primary brain tumors suffer thro-
mboembolic disease, he requested the chest ex-
amination, which led to the correct diagnosis and
appropriate treatment. However, one can be led
astray. Focal seizures can cause dyspnea, leading
one to incorrectly suspect pulmonary disease
161
;
generalized seizures can cause pulmonary edema,
which also leads to tachypnea. In addition, after a
prolonged grand mal seizure, there is often an
elevated serum lactate level (presumably due to
poor oxygenation during the seizure) and thus
it may take 10 to 15 minutes for the breathing
and heart rate to return to normal. On the other
hand, prolonged tachypnea should be evaluated
by arterial blood gases. Respiratory alkalosis, hyp-
oxia, and hypocapnia indicate pulmonary embo-
lus (the sum of PaO
2
and PaCO
2
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